High Threat Research Articles

Triggering the 2022 eruption of Mauna Loa

AbstractDistinguishing periods of intermittent unrest from the run-up to eruption is a major challenge at volcanoes around the globe. Comparing multidisciplinary monitoring data with mineral chemistry that records the physical and spatio-temporal evolution of magmas fundamentally advances our ability to forecast eruptions. The recent eruption of Mauna Loa, Earth’s largest active volcano, provides a unique opportunity to differentiate unrest from run-up and improve forecasting of future eruptions. After decades of intermittent seismic and geodetic activity over 38 years of repose, Mauna Loa began erupting on 27 November 2022. Here we present a multidisciplinary synthesis that tracks the spatio-temporal evolution of precursory activity by integrating mineral and melt chemistry, fluid inclusion barometry, numerical modeling of mineral zoning, syn-eruptive gas plume measurements, the distribution and frequency of earthquake hypocenters, seismic velocity changes, and ground deformation. These diverse data indicate that the eruption occurred following a 2-month period of sustained magma intrusion from depths of 3–5 km up to 1–2 km beneath the summit caldera, providing a new model of the plumbing system at this very high threat volcano. Careful correlation of both the geochemistry and instrumental monitoring data improves our ability to distinguish unrest from the run-up to eruption by providing deeper understanding of the both the monitoring data and the magmatic system—an approach that could be applied at other volcanic systems worldwide.

Pathogenicity potential of enterococci isolated from a Veterinary Biological Isolation and Containment Unit.

Enterococcus are considered an important genus in terms of Hospital-Acquired Infections (HAIs), which means that their characterization regarding resistance and virulence profiles in the hospital environment is of extreme importance. This article addresses this issue through the characterization of enterococci collected from a Veterinary Biological Isolation and Containment Unit (BICU). A total of 73 isolates, collected from different surfaces of a Veterinary BICU, were identified as Enterococcus through PCR at species level, after which 34 isolates were selected as representatives using (GTG)5 fingerprinting. These isolates were further characterized phenotypically in terms of antimicrobial resistance through disk diffusion and of virulence factors' expression. The majority of the enterococci isolated presented resistance to erythromycin (79.4%), ampicillin (73.5%), amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (70.6%), tetracycline (67.6%), ciprofloxacin (58.8%) and levofloxacin (50.0%), and were able to produce hemolysin (88.2%) and biofilm (82.3%). Furthermore, in terms of pathogenicity, three isolates (8.8%) were classified as high threats and two (5.9%) as moderate threats. The degree of resistance, production of virulence factors and the percentage of isolates classified as moderate or high threat means that a constant vigilance of such strains in veterinary units, but also in clinics and hospitals in general, is an important tool in terms of infection prevention and consequent reduction of HAIs.

The endemic plant species of Ebo Forest, Littoral Region, Cameroon, with a new Critically Endangered cloud forest shrub, Memecylon ebo (Melastomataceae-Olisbeoideae)

SummaryWe emphasise the urgent need to conserve the Ebo forest (Littoral Region, Cameroon), which holds 10 strict endemic plant species and 15 near endemics for a total of 25, a very high number far exceeding the threshold for its recent status as an Important Plant Area (IPA). We describe a further strict endemic species from the Ebo Forest, Memecylon ebo sp. nov. (Melastomataceae-Olisbeoideae), placed in sect. Afzeliana due to its ellipsoid, blue-green fruits. The yellow petals and jade green anther-connectives of M. ebo are unique in the genus Memecylon, which has >400 species ranging overall from Africa to the western Pacific. Memecylon ebo is assessed as Critically Endangered [CR], using the 2012 IUCN standard, due to its small range size and the extremely high and ongoing threats of logging at Ebo and also due to subsequent threats of potential oil palm plantation and mining projects. With the addition of Memecylon ebo, the tally of Critically Endangered plant species recorded from Ebo forest is now the highest of any IPA in Cameroon, equalling that of Ngovayang with 24 CR species.

A sustainable step forward: Exploring factors influencing the purchase intentions towards remanufactured products using fsQCA

The rapid advancement of industrialization has led to a growing concern about resource shortages and environmental pollution. Sustainable manufacturing practices, particularly in the context of remanufactured products, have been extensively researched from the B2B perspective. Comparatively fewer studies have examined consumer behavior in the context of remanufactured electrical appliances. This study merges components from the Theory of Planned Behavior and Protection Motivation Theory with additional variables into a framework for predicting purchase intentions. Noting the complex, asymmetric nature of causation, an asymmetrical configurational approach using fsQCA is used for analysis. Data were collected form 411 consumers in the U.K using quota sampling technique. The findings show that both components of attitude (experiential and instrumental) as well as a high threat appraisal (perceived severity and vulnerability) are present in all configurations predicting high purchase intention. Self-efficacy and response efficacy are also important conditions present in many configurations. The paper ends with some novel insights on consumer behavior with respect to remanufactured products, and a discussion of theoretical and managerial implications.

Quantification of threats to bats at localized spatial scales for conservation and management.

In a rapidly changing world, where species conservation needs vary by local habitat, concentrated conservation efforts at small spatial scales can be critical. Bats provide an array of value to the ecosystems they inhabit; many bat species are also of conservation concern. San Diego County, California, contains 22 of the 41 bat species that occur in the United States, 16 of which are on conservation watchlists. Thus, management of bat communities in San Diego County is a pressing need. Because bats exploit vast areas of the landscape and historical sampling strategies have shifted over time, a standardized way of prioritizing areas of the landscape for management would provide an integral asset to bat conservation. We leveraged long-term bat community survey data from sampling areas across San Diego County to prioritize areas with the most management need. We calculated two types of scores: species scores and threat scores. Species scores incorporated richness and conservation status, and threat scores included landscape level threats that bats could encounter. We found that urbanization, the presence of artificial lights, and areas sampled on unconserved land were all significantly associated with decreases in species richness. Further, using species and threat scores, each sampling area was placed into one of four conservation categories, in order from greatest to least conservation need, ranging from highest priority (high species score, high threat score) to lowest (low species score, low threat score). Additionally, we focused on sampling areas in which Townsend's big-eared bat (Corynorhinus townsendii) and/or pallid bat (Antrozous pallidus) occurred. These two species are of exceptional conservation concern in San Diego County and across the western United States. We identified urbanization, the presence of artificial lights, and areas sampled on unconserved land as threats that were all significantly associated with the absence of Townsend's big-eared bat, but not pallid bat. The strategy, methodology, and solutions proposed in our study should assist bat conservation and management efforts wherever bats occur, and can be extended to other species that require conservation attention.

Endemic Prunus species in the high Himalayas, Eastern Nepal, seeking conservation

Prunus species play an important role in preserving the Nepal's unique identity; such as three endemic species of Prunus, Prunus topkegolensis, Prunus jajarkotensis, and Prunus taplejungnica, represent the country's local area. An ecological and social survey of P. topkegolensis and P. taplejungnica was conducted. To analyze these species' regeneration status and population structures, the density of seedlings, saplings, and adult trees were compared, and created a diameter size class diagram. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to compare the average values of seedlings, saplings, and adult trees between two species. To determine the ethnobotanical importance of a species, the relative frequency of citation (RFC) was calculated for various use categories. We classified both species as trees as the average diameter at breast height (DBH) of P. topkegolensis was 19.55 ± 14.66 cm with an average height 5.05 ± 2.28 m, while that of P. taplejungnica was 14.5 ± 7.93 cm with an average height of 4.89 ± 1.66 m. P. topkegolensis had an average 32 ± 31 adult trees, 16 ± 15 saplings, and 21 ± 18 seedlings per 0.1 ha, while P. taplejungnica had 12 ± 5 adult trees, 2 saplings, and 6 ± 4 seedlings per 0.1 ha. The number of seedlings and saplings at the plot level differed significantly between species (W = 75.5, p- = 0.05, and W = 84, p = 0.01, respectively). Both had humped-shaped diameter at breast height size class distribution. However, P. taplejungnica had a more apparent hump-shaped diameter at breast height distribution than P. topkegolensis, indicating that P. taplejungnica has more unsustainable regeneration issues. P. taplejungnica was locally recognized as a separate species from P. rufa, whereas P. topkegolensis was not. P. topkegolensis have seven different use categories, with wood and fuel wood being the most frequently cited, with RFC value 1. Rapid vulnerability assessment (RVA) showed both species are having high conservation threats. In situ conservation measures are suggested to address the issue of poor regeneration and disturbances.

POPULATION STUDY AND REASSESSMENT OF CONSERVATION STATUS OF AN ENDEMIC DIPTEROCARP, Hopea bilitonensis

Hopea bilitonensis is a rare, endemic Dipterocarp species in the Malesian Region. It has a disjunct distribution pattern, where main populations occur on the sandy soils of Bangka Belitung Islands of Indonesia and some on limestone forest in Perak, Peninsular Malaysia. Current global status of this species based on the IUCN Red List is Critically Endangered (CR) A1c+2c, B1+2c (1998) whilst in Malaysia it is assessed as CR A4c, B1ab(iii) (2010). A reassessment of the conservation status of this species is needed to provide the most current population status and its extinction risk, especially in Indonesia using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria version 3.1. This study was conducted to survey and assess the current populations of this species in Belitung Island where most population occurred and subsequently to recommend its current conservation status. The species is in fact still common in the island, stretching along the main roads and surrounding forests. Using the purposive sampling method, we developed a total of 16 plots of 20x20m each in 10 different locations across the Belitung Island. A total of 730 individuals were found with stem diameter at breast height ranged from 2cm to more than 30cm. For global reassessment, based on the current distribution and herbarium records, the calculated extent of occurrence (EOO) is 108,128.642km2, whilst the area of occupancy (AOO) is 84 km2. However, the species clearly has a restricted distribution and is facing high threats due to frequent timber harvesting and continuing decline of the EOO and AOO. The species extinction risk was then assessed by using five quantitative criteria of the IUCN. Therefore, we propose H. bilitonensis category is considered to be Endangered (EN) based on A2c, B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v) and C2a(i) criteria.

A Mathematical Modelling for Three-Factor Quantum Biometric Authentication Using Machine Learning, Double-Layer Encryption, Cryptographic Algorithms

Traditional authentication mechanisms are vulnerable to sophisticated attacks in the ever-changing cybersecurity paradigms. In this paper, a new three-factor quantum biometric system is proposed that were analysed to increase security level and reduce threats. This model employs multiple strategies, like quantum key distribution, a biometric identification system and machine learning which encrypts data based on their unique properties in an innovative way to provide not only one but two layers of encryption from unauthorized access. The system in its essence combines three critical elements: quantum generated cryptographic keys, biometric data (fingerprint or retinal scans) and dynamic behaviour-based identification using machine learning algorithms. By adding QKD to the hardware, an encryption key that should be practically impossible for anyone else (except sender and receiver) to intercept is securely generated and distributed through quantum mechanics principles of detection preventing possible eavesdropper. Secondly, the biometric data means that an imposter would have to not only steal your smartphone but also be able to authenticate themselves using unique physiology which takes even more of the likelihood out. Machine learning models study user behaviour patterns and work to adapt against evolving threats, gradually improving the accuracy of authentication with time. For added security, the system uses a double-layer encryption routine. The newly proposed system has a two-level encryption, and in the first layer, quantum keys encrypted bio-metric data while classical algorithms are applied to encrypt overall communication as well storage process. Besides ensuring the safety of private biometric information through dual encryption, this added redundancy also allows them to function as extra fail safe so that if one layer is breached, the entire system will still stand uncompromised. We evaluate the implementation of this new authentication scheme to a series-simulations and real-world test, showing the performance in different scenarios including high threat level environments. The results show major security enhancement compared to the traditional implementation of authentication methods with an observed amount decrease in data breaches and unsanctioned access attempts.

PEMETAAN ANCAMAN BENCANA TANAH LONGSOR BERBASIS SISTEM INFORMASI GEOGRAFIS (Studi Kasus : Kecamatan Bener, Kecamatan Loano dan Kecamatan Kaligesing, Kabupaten Purworejo)

Purworejo Regency is one of the districts in Central Java that often experiences natural disasters. Based on the Indonesian Disaster Risk Index, Purworejo Regency is in the high category or prone to natural disasters. Based on BPBD data from Purworejo Regency throughout 2021, Purworejo Regency often experiences landslides with high landslide intensity in Bener, Loano and Kaligesing Districts. This condition is the basis for this research as one of the disaster mitigation efforts in the sub-district area. This research is based on a Geographic Information System using Minister of Public Works Regulation No.22/PRT/M/2007 and AHP. Both methods were verified with landslide disaster event data. The results of landslide threat mapping based on Minister of Public Works Regulation No.22/PRT/M/2007 showed that the high zone threat was 6.67% or an area of 1,561,205 Ha, the medium zone was 77.52% or an area of 18,140,315 Ha, and 15.80% or an area of 3,698.145 Ha is in the low category. Meanwhile, the AHP results showed that the high threat area for landslides was 12.45% or an area of 2,913,889 Ha, the medium zone was 77.14%, or an area of 18,050,276 Ha, and 10.41% or an area of 2,435,500 Ha was in the low category.Keywords: Landslides, Permen PU No.22/PRT/M/2007, AHP

Bending the curve of global freshwater biodiversity loss: what are the prospects?

Freshwater biodiversity conservation has received substantial attention in the scientific literature and is finally being recognized in policy frameworks such as the Global Biodiversity Framework and its associated targets for 2030. This is important progress. Nonetheless, freshwater species continue to be confronted with high levels of imperilment and widespread ecosystem degradation. An Emergency Recovery Plan (ERP) proposed in 2020 comprises six measures intended to "bend the curve" of freshwater biodiversity loss, if they are widely adopted and adequately supported. We review evidence suggesting that the combined intensity of persistent and emerging threats to freshwater biodiversity has become so serious that current and projected efforts to preserve, protect and restore inland-water ecosystems may be insufficient to avert substantial biodiversity losses in the coming decades. In particular, climate change, with its complex and harmful impacts, will frustrate attempts to prevent biodiversity losses from freshwater ecosystems already affected by multiple threats. Interactions among these threats will limit recovery of populations and exacerbate declines resulting in local or even global extinctions, especially among low-viability populations in degraded or fragmented ecosystems. In addition to impediments represented by climate change, we identify several other areas where the absolute scarcity of fresh water, inadequate scientific information or predictive capacity, and a widespread failure to mitigate anthropogenic stressors, are liable to set limits on the recovery of freshwater biodiversity. Implementation of the ERP rapidly and at scale through many widely dispersed local actions focused on regions of high freshwater biodiversity and intense threat, together with an intensification of ex-situ conservation efforts, will be necessary to preserve native freshwater biodiversity during an increasingly uncertain climatic future in which poorly understood, emergent and interacting threats have become more influential. But implementation of the ERP must be accompanied by measures that will improve water, energy and food security for humans - without further compromising the condition of freshwater ecosystems. Unfortunately, the inadequate political implementation of policies to arrest widely recognized environmental challenges such as climate change do not inspire confidence about the possible success of the ERP. In many parts of the world, the Anthropocene future seems certain to include extended periods with an absolute scarcity of uncontaminated surface runoff that will inevitably be appropriated by humans. Unless there is a step-change in societal awareness of - and commitment to - the conservation of freshwater biodiversity, together with necessary actions to arrest climate change, implementation of established methods for protecting freshwater biodiversity may not bend the curve enough to prevent continued ecosystem degradation and species loss.

Evaluating the Public Health Benefits of Renewable Energy Systems: How Smart Grid Technology Can Be Used to Enhance Community Health

Integrating smart grid technologies into renewable energy systems, however, is still limited by several barriers. Technical complexity, high initial costs, intricate infrastructure and potential cyber threats are all part of the game. Solving this problem is what the proposed Enhanced Social Energy Levels Optimization Analysis (SELOA) approach aims at; it is also targeted at ensuring that there is equal participation for each person in the society during the shift to renewables hence improved justice in energy consumption and distribution. Proposed application areas for residential energy management, public health monitoring and emergency planning are hardly exhaustive. SELOA use can promote healthier communities while achieving sustainable use of energy. The method was tested through simulating SELOA on various actual situations. Thus this research has indicated that less pollution from conventional power generation as well as more efficient generation methods would lead to improved health among people in various communities. These results imply that integration of Smart Grid technology with renewable energy systems could be a major contribution towards both appropriate sustainability and public health based on our finding.

Information Technology Governance Analysis to Reduce Information Security Risks Using Cobit 2019: A Case Study of Manufacturing Companies

PT Krakatau Steel (Persero) Tbk is a company engaged in the manufacturing industry that utilizes digital transformation to improve efficiency, optimize facilities and assist organizations in making business decisions quickly. However, there are new challenges in implementing digital transformation, namely increasing dependence on information technology (IT) and triggering high potential threats to information security. Therefore, good information technology governance is needed in managing information security. The research method is based on the Control Objectives for Information Technologies (COBIT) framework version 2019 as the best guide in managing information technology governance. The research was conducted in several stages, including data collection through observation of policy documents and interviews with employees of the BEICT (Business Enables & Information Communication Technology) Department who are responsible for managing services and maintaining the company's digital assets. Evaluation of the maturity level was carried out on 8 priority objectives consisting of EDM03, EDM05, APO12, APO13, APO14, BAI09, DSS05, and MEA04 based on design factor assessment. The results of the analysis of selected domain activities, the IT governance maturity level was at 2.56 (managed level). Indicates that the organization has managed and implemented information security activities, but some activities do not yet have written policies or procedures. With recommendations in the form of proposed improvements to the aspects of people, processes and technology, it is hoped that it can increase the level of maturity of IT governance in reducing information security risks and supporting digital transformation programs.

Edukasi dan Mitigasi Bencana yang Optimal melalui “Pos Iklim” Desa Pakis Kabupaten Jember

In terms of Indonesian geography lies in an area that's in the Pacific ring, putting Indonesia in the form of a country with a high threat of disaster. Team of PPK Ormawa IMPA Akasia took issue of breis in jember district pakis as the village historic there was a flood that caused loss of property, objects, to the lives of villagers. The purpose of this devotion is divided into three, namely, young people and rural communities that are conscious and understanding of the urgency of the education of transcanaan, the two create bastions of communities focused on addressing climate adaptation and mitigation, and the third is creating a map of the location of village disaster and a reduced location of vulnerable areas in the village. The method employed is divided into three preparatory, implementation, and supervision processes. The climate post is expected to solve the problems of the existing in the pakis village and can independently develop programs consistent with existing potential in the village to address the optimum climate post with the needs of village people.

Simpler is greener: The impact of packaging visual complexity on products' eco‐friendliness perception

AbstractConsumers increasingly value eco‐friendly attributes of products. Packaging serves as a medium through which consumers perceive product attributes and products convey information. However, research on the impact of packaging visual complexity on a product's perceived eco‐friendliness has not been thoroughly examined. Four studies were conducted based on visual complexity metaphor theory to examine the impact of packaging visual complexity on the eco‐friendliness perception of products. The study also investigated the mediating role of naturalness and durability perception as well as the moderating effect of external environmental threats. The results indicate that the visual complexity of packaging directly or indirectly (through perceptions of naturalness and durability) affects the eco‐friendliness perception of products. Furthermore, under high environmental threats, consumers exhibit a stronger eco‐friendly perception and purchase intention towards products with simple packaging. Eco‐friendliness perception mediates the relationship between packaging visual complexity and purchase intentions. This study contributes to the literature on visual complexity metaphors and eco‐friendly packaging and complements our knowledge of how visual packaging characteristics influence the perception of product attributes. The results provide valuable insights for marketing managers on how to use the visual complexity of packaging design to effectively convey product information.

When and how the ‘Neighbours’ matter: ‘Immediate’ opportunity structures in the Eastern neighbourhood and policy frame-alignment by the EU

ABSTRACT The paper examines the external opportunity structures of the EU’s eastern neighbours during times of high security threat. The research investigates when and to what extent opportunities in the neighbourhood affect EU engagement and shape policy-frame alignment. The study introduces the concept of an ‘immediate’ opportunity structure and concludes that the EU’s decisions to initiate or alter policy frames towards countries in the Eastern neighbourhood are driven by immediate security-related opportunity structures that exist at the moment of decision-making. Furthermore, the EU’s decision to engage depends on whether the security threat in the region and the neighbourhood directly affects the Union’s security architecture. As the political environment in the neighbourhood becomes more open and concessions towards the EU increase, the EU boosts its engagement, reflected in its policy alignment. The paper claims that the EU strategy prioritises immediate opportunity structures over indicators of long-term achievements in target countries. This focus on immediate opportunities aims to address, create, and further expand long-term opportunity structures.

Application of the Status of Justice Collaborator in the Criminal Justice System in Indonesia (Case Study: Decision of Central Jakarta District Court Number 41/Pid.sus/TPK/ 2017/PN. JKT)

In Indonesian criminal law, the status of a Perpetrator Witness (Justice Collaborator) has significant legal consequences. With the entry of this Justice Collaborator regulation, the threat of criminal punishment will be less effective against perpetrators of serious crimes. This will make it more difficult to identify the main perpetrators in cases of crimes committed together, and will be a new strategy to avoid the threat of high punishment because the status of a Justice Collaborator is guaranteed to get leniency for serious crimes committed. The enactment of the regulation on the status of Justice Collaborator in corruption criminal justice which provides a guarantee of a reduction in punishment for perpetrator witnesses is seen as very counterproductive with a very high criminal threat for corruption perpetrators as perpetrators of certain crimes (serious crimes). Most people in Indonesia even strongly agree that the criminal threat for the perpetrators of corruption crimes is the death penalty, so great are the hopes of people who want no more corruption crimes that are very detrimental to the state and the people of Indonesia.

Analysis of wildlife threat findings based on the SMART patrol application at Pemerihan Resort, Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park

Monitoring, managing, and maintaining conservation areas are challenges faced by various parties. The Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool (SMART) is an application used to measure, collect, evaluate, and improve the effectiveness of location-based monitoring and conservation activities and has been implemented at the Pemerihan Resort, Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park (TNBBS). Based on the SMART application, the research aims to analyze the findings of threats and wildlife on active patrol routes. The methods used are documentary studies and field observations. The data obtained from the documentary study is in the form of data from forest patrols for two years (2020-2022), then processed, classified, and analyzed into data on threat findings and wild animal encounter data directly or through signs of presence, which is then verified through field observations. The research results show that the data found from the SMART application during four patrol periods from 2020-2022 consisted of 143 threat findings and 841 wild animal encounters. The highest threat finding was animal hunting, with 56 findings (39%), and the lowest was logging, with three findings (2%). Twenty-three wild animal encounters were found directly or through signs of presence such as tracks, feces, scratches, and food remain. The highest wildlife encounter was the sambar deer (Rusa unicolor). The high threat findings indicate much human activity in the Pemerihan Resort Area, TNBBS, which can disturb wildlife and its habitats.

Microplastics contamination suppressed immune and health status in cage cultured Barramundi: An investigation on pollution sources, ecotoxicological impacts, and transcription of genes involved in detoxification

This study aimed to study the abundance and ecotoxicological consequences of microplastics (MPs) in cage-cultured Barramundi from the Persian Gulf. The fish, water, sediment, and aquafeed samples were taken from 4 cage-culture sites and reference points in Bushehr and Hormozgan provinces. Gills showed the highest normalized, while muscles exhibited the lowest MPs concentration. Waters and sediments from cage-culture sites had significantly higher MPs than reference points. Raman spectrophotometry identified polyurethane, polyether, and polyolefin as prevalent MPs. Unexpectedly, larger fish had lesser number of MPs per unit of their weight. MPs contamination adversely affected fish health and immune. Specifically, fish with elevated MPs contamination exhibited significantly reduced levels of acetylcholinesterase and gamma-glutamyl transferase, and an increase in the activities of aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase. The level of immune parameters including lysozyme, total immunoglobulin and complements were all decreased in fish with high MPs. A clear association was determined between MPs contamination and expression levels of cytochrome P450 1A1 and glutathione S-transferase in the liver. Low MPs biomagnification and hazard risk to the final consumer, but high threat to fish own health and immune were observed.

Military expenditure and income inequality in European NATO Member States

The purpose of this investigation was to empirically assess the association between military expenditure and income inequality in the 19 European member states of NATO between 2011 and 2022. To achieve this, the authors carried out multivariate statistical analysis using Kaplan-Meier life tables and survival estimation techniques. The results highlighted a trend in the countries analysed that income inequality tended to decrease when investment in the military increased during the period under consideration. The association manifested itself in the shortest time in the group of countries with the lowest military spending per capita, while emerging in the longer term in the countries with the highest. Furthermore, under high threat of war, the association tends to be shortest in relative terms in countries with the lowest military expenditure per capita. The results also revealed that the association between military spending and income inequality is more pronounced in the smallest countries by population and those with the lowest military expenditure per capita. The authors believe that this investigation will enrich scientific knowledge with new insights.

Health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements in the riparian zone of the Sava River (southeastern Europe): effects of high and low water events

This study evaluated the source apportionment and level of contamination with potential toxic elements (PTEs)—As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn—in a riparian zone of the Sava River by calculating the Enrichment Factor (EF) and the Geo-Accumulation Index (Igeo). The study analysed the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks to both adults and children in the local population. Soil and sediment samples collected during high and low water events from 12 sites along 945 km of the river were screened. Elevated soil contents of As, Cr, Cu, Ni, and Zn were observed along the middle and lower stretches from Županja (ZUP) to Belgrade (BEO), and an elevated Cu content was detected in the upper stretch Čatež (CAT), highlighting these elements as a potential risk for the human population. Elevated As, Cd Cr, Ni, and Zn levels in the sediment were also detected, with the Ni content three times higher than the Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) values, indicating high contamination. The study established that As, Cr, and Ni primarily originate from geological sources; Cu, Pb, and Zn are predominantly from anthropogenic sources; and Cd originates from both geological and anthropogenic sources. Although the EF and Igeo varied along the entire river stretch, they were significantly higher for most elements in the lower stretch, indicating intensive anthropogenic contamination and potential health risks. The carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks associated with soils and sediments during high and low water events did not imply a potential risk for adults. However, As, Cd, Cr, and Pb potentially pose the greatest non-carcinogenic risk for children in both high and low water events, with ingestion as the main route of exposure. According to our findings, the elevated concentrations of As, Cd, Cr, and Pb in the Sava River basin (SRB) pose a significant potential health risk to the local population based on several factors: the high levels of these elements, their potential contamination risk as determined by the EF and Igeo, and their bioavailability and solubility. Although the cumulative Total Hazard Index (THI) and Total Carcinogenic Risk (TCR) values are low, particularly in the lower stretch of the Sava River, these elements still present a high potential health threat.