Higher Oxytocin Concentrations Research Articles

The balance between fetal oxytocin and placental leucine aminopeptidase (P-LAP) controls human uterine contraction around labor onset.

A fetal pituitary hormone, oxytocin which causes uterine contractions, increases throughout gestation, and its increase reaches 10-fold from week 32 afterward. Oxytocin is, on the other hand, degraded by placental leucine aminopeptidase (P-LAP) which exists in both terminal villi and maternal blood. Maternal blood P-LAP increases with advancing gestation under the control of non-genomic effects of progesterone, which is also produced from the placenta. Progesterone is converted to estrogen by CYP17A1 localized in the fetal adrenal gland and placenta at term. The higher oxytocin concentrations in the fetus than in the mother demonstrate not only fetal oxytocin production but also its degradation and/or inhibition of leakage from fetus to mother by P-LAP. Until labor onset, the pregnant uterus is quiescent possibly due to the balance between increasing fetal oxytocin and P-LAP under control of progesterone. A close correlation exists between the feto-placental and maternal units in the placental circulation, although the blood in the two circulations does not necessarily mix. Fetal maturation results in progesterone withdrawal via the CYP17A1 activation accompanied with fetal oxytocin increase. Contribution of fetal oxytocin to labor onset has been acknowledged through the recognition that the effect of fetal oxytocin in the maternal blood is strictly regulated by its degradation by P-LAP under the control of non-genomic effects of progesterone. In all senses, the fetus necessarily takes the initiative in labor onset.

The In Vitro Contractile Response of Canine Pregnant Myometrium to Oxytocin and Denaverine Hydrochloride.

In pregnant bitches, the response to oxytocin and denaverine hydrochloride in dystocia management is usually poor. To better understand the effect of both drugs on myometrial contractility, the circular and longitudinal muscle layers were examined in an organ bath. For each layer, three myometrial strips were stimulated twice, each with one of three oxytocin concentrations. The effect of denaverine hydrochloride was studied once in direct combination with oxytocin and alone with subsequent oxytocin administration. Contractions were recorded and evaluated for average amplitude, mean force, area under the curve (AUC), and frequency. Effects of different treatments were analyzed and compared within and between layers. In the circular layer, oxytocin significantly increased amplitude and mean force compared to untreated controls regardless of stimulation cycles or concentrations. In both layers, high oxytocin concentrations caused tonic contractions, while the lowest concentration created regular rhythmic contractions. Longitudinal layer tissue responded to oxytocin with a significantly decreased contractility when stimulated twice, presumably a sign of desensitization. Denaverine hydrochloride neither affected oxytocin induced contractions nor showed a priming effect to subsequent oxytocin. Thus, no benefit of denaverine hydrochloride on myometrial contractility was found in the organ bath. Our results suggest a better efficiency of low-dose oxytocin in canine dystocia management.

Correlations between behavior and hormone concentrations or gut microbiome imply that domestic cats (Felis silvestris catus) living in a group are not like 'groupmates'.

Domestic cats (Felis silvestris catus) can live in high densities, although most feline species are solitary and exclusively territorial animals; it is possible that certain behavioral strategies enable this phenomenon. These behaviors are regulated by hormones and the gut microbiome, which, in turn, is influenced by domestication. Therefore, we investigated the relationships between the sociality, hormone concentrations, and gut microbiome of domestic cats by conducting three sets of experiments for each group of five cats and analyzing their behavior, hormone concentrations (cortisol, oxytocin, and testosterone), and their gut microbiomes. We observed that individuals with high cortisol and testosterone concentrations established less contact with others, and individuals with high oxytocin concentrations did not exhibit affiliative behaviors as much as expected. Additionally, the higher the frequency of contact among the individuals, the greater the similarity in gut microbiome; gut microbial composition was also related to behavioral patterns and cortisol secretion. Notably, individuals with low cortisol and testosterone concentrations were highly tolerant, making high-density living easy. Oxytocin usually functions in an affiliative manner within groups, but our results suggest that even if typically solitary and territorial animals live in high densities, their oxytocin functions are opposite to those of typically group-living animals.

Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (αMSH) modulates the rewarding properties of social interactions in an oxytocin receptor-dependent manner in Syrian hamsters (Mesocricetus Auratus)

A reduction in the rewarding properties of social interactions is frequently a key contributor to neuropsychiatric disorders. Although much remains to be learned about the neural mechanisms governing social reward, numerous studies have found that oxytocin can enhance the salience of rewarding social interactions. As a result, oxytocin has been suggested as a pharmacotherapy for disorders characterized by a dampening of social motivation. However, exogenous oxytocin does not cross the blood-brain barrier effectively, which has led to the investigation of alternative approaches to induce central oxytocin release, such as pharmaceuticals targeting melanocortins. Although oxytocin treatment is widely viewed to increase social reward, there is also recent evidence that high concentrations of oxytocin can decrease social reward. In the present study we tested the hypothesis that alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (αMSH) influences the rewarding properties of social interactions by acting on oxytocin receptors. Male and female Syrian hamsters were given intracerebroventricular infusions of saline, αMSH, or a cocktail containing αMSH and an oxytocin receptor antagonist during social conditioning with a same-sex hamster and then tested for a conditioned place preference. αMSH decreased preference for the socially-paired chamber compared to saline treatment, and administration of the oxytocin antagonist concurrent with αMSH administration returned subjects’ preference to control levels. Importantly, αMSH treatments did not affect any measures of body composition or the specific social behaviors displayed during conditioning. These data suggest that melanocortin-targeting drugs should be administered carefully to avoid the possibility of decreasing the rewarding properties of social interactions.

Specificity of plasma oxytocin immunoassays: A comparison of commercial assays and sample preparation techniques using oxytocin knockout and wildtype mice

Oxytocin has garnered much interest due to its role in affective states, social behaviors, and diverse physiological functions. However, approaches for measuring endogenous oxytocin concentrations have generated considerable controversy and debate. Common procedures for measuring oxytocin often produce uncorrelated results, and the detected concentrations frequently vary across two orders of magnitude. These findings have led some researchers to argue that immunoassays of plasma oxytocin may be unreliable and nonspecific, particularly when samples are not first processed using an extraction procedure. Here, we assess the specificity of oxytocin immunoassays using plasma samples from wildtype (WT) and oxytocin knockout (KO) mice. Plasma samples from both genotypes were measured using immunoassay and were measured with or without a solid-phase extraction. Using a commercially available kit from Arbor Assays, we demonstrate that both techniques generate a clear contrast between genotypes, with wildtype samples containing high concentrations of oxytocin (unextracted mean = 468 pg/ml; extracted mean = 381 pg/ml), while knockout samples measured below the lower limit of detection. Analytical validations demonstrated good parallelism and spike recovery for both methods. Furthermore, the same wildtype samples measured with both procedures were highly correlated (r = 0.95), although unextracted samples measured at significantly higher concentrations (p = 2.0 ×10−7, Cohen’s d = 2.65). To test the generalizability of these results across immunoassay kits, we performed additional assays with kits from Cayman Chemical and Enzo Life Sciences. The Cayman Chemical kit produced results similar to Arbor Assays with a clean signal differentiating WT and KO plasma, both with and without an extraction step. The Enzo kit also differentiated the genotypes, with correlation between extracted and unextracted samples, but was considerably more susceptible to interference without the extraction, as evidenced by false positive signal in KO plasma samples. The extent to which these results generalize to other species remains unknown and challenging to assess.

Endocrine changes related to dog domestication: Comparing urinary cortisol and oxytocin in hand-raised, pack-living dogs and wolves

Dogs are exceptionally well adapted to life close to humans, and alterations in their endocrine system during the domestication process may be an underlying mechanism. In particular, it has been suggested that low circulating cortisol concentrations in conjunction with simultaneously high oxytocin concentrations may have resulted in dogs' increased docility (‘selection for tameness’ hypothesis) and heightened propensity to interact and form relationships with humans (‘hypersociability’ hypothesis) compared to wolves. To investigate this, we analyzed cortisol and oxytocin metabolite concentrations from urine samples of hand-raised, pack-living domestic dogs and their non-domestic relatives, grey wolves. Based on the hypotheses outlined above, we predicted lower cortisol but higher oxytocin concentrations in dogs than wolves. In contrast to our prediction, we found higher cortisol concentrations in dogs than wolves. However, oxytocin concentrations were higher in dogs compared to wolves although the effect was relatively small. Indeed, male dogs had the highest oxytocin concentrations while female dogs' oxytocin concentrations were comparable to wolves'. Feeding status, reproductive phase, and conspecific social interactions also significantly affected cortisol and oxytocin concentrations. Furthermore, we compared two methods of correcting for variable water content of urine samples. We discuss our results in light of physiological and behavioral changes during domestication and highlight the importance of accounting for confounding variables in future studies.

Labeled oxytocin administered via the intranasal route reaches the brain in rhesus macaques

Oxytocin may have promise as a treatment for neuropsychiatric disorders. Its therapeutic effect may depend on its ability to enter the brain and bind to the oxytocin receptor. To date, the brain tissue penetrance of intranasal oxytocin has not been demonstrated. In this nonhuman primate study, we administer deuterated oxytocin intranasally and intravenously to rhesus macaques and measure, with mass spectrometry, concentrations of labeled (exogenously administered) and endogenous oxytocin in 12 brain regions two hours after oxytocin administration. Labeled oxytocin is quantified after intranasal (not intravenous) administration in brain regions (orbitofrontal cortex, striatum, brainstem, and thalamus) that lie in the trajectories of the olfactory and trigeminal nerves. These results suggest that intranasal administration bypasses the blood–brain barrier, delivering oxytocin to specific brain regions, such as the striatum, where oxytocin acts to impact motivated behaviors. Further, high concentrations of endogenous oxytocin are in regions that overlap with projection fields of oxytocinergic neurons.

A Mathematical Model Relating Pitocin Use during Labor with Offspring Autism Development in terms of Oxytocin Receptor Desensitization in the Fetal Brain.

This paper develops a mathematical model describing the potential buildup of high oxytocin concentrations in the maternal circulation during labor in terms of continuous Pitocin infusion rate, half-life, and maternal weight. Oxytocin override of the degradation of oxytocin by placental oxytocinase is introduced to model the potential transfer of oxytocin from the maternal circulation across the placenta into the fetal circulation and from there into the brain of the fetus. The desensitization unit D equal to 1.8E6 (pg·min)/ml is employed to establish a desensitization threshold and by extension, a downregulation threshold as a function of oxytocin override concentration and continuous Pitocin infusion time, that could be a factor in the subsequent development of autism among offspring. Epidemiological studies by Duke University [1], Yale University [2], and Harvard University [3] are discussed regarding Pitocin use and offspring autism development for an explanation of the weak correlations they identified. The findings of the Harvard epidemiological study are reinterpreted regarding Pitocin use and its conclusion questioned. Further evaluations of the findings of these three epidemiological studies are called for to incorporate medical information on quantity of Pitocin used, continuous Pitocin infusion rate, length of labor, and maternal weight to determine if a correlation can be established with offspring autism development above an empirically determined desensitization threshold for Pitocin use. Suggestions for research are discussed, including an alternative to continuous Pitocin infusion, pulsatile infusion of Pitocin during labor induction, which may mitigate possible offspring autism development.

Dissociation of natriuresis and diuresis by oxytocin molecular forms in rats.

In the rat, oxytocin (OT) produces dose-dependent diuretic and natriuretic responses. Post-translational enzymatic conversion of the OT biosynthetic precursor forms both mature and C-terminally extended peptides. The plasma concentrations of these C-terminally extended peptides (OT-G; OT-GK and OT-GKR) are elevated in newborns and pregnant rats. Intravenous injection of OT-GKR to rats inhibits diuresis, whereas injection of amidated OT stimulates diuresis. Since OT and OT-GKR show different effects on the urine flow, we investigated whether OT-GKR modulates renal action by inhibition of the arginine-vasopressin (AVP) receptor V2 (V2R), the receptor involved in renal water reabsorption. Experiments were carried out in the 8-week-old Wistar rats receiving intravenous (iv) injections of vehicle, OT, OT-GKR or OT+OT-GKR combination. OT (10 μmol/kg) increased urine outflow by 40% (P<0.01) and sodium excretion by 47% (P<0.01). Treatment with OT-GKR (10 μmol/kg) decreased diuresis by 50% (P<0.001), decreased sodium excretion by 50% (P<0.05) and lowered potassium by 42% (P<0.05). OT antagonist (OTA) reduced diuresis and natriuresis exerted by OT, whereas the anti-diuretic effect of OT-GKR was unaffected by OTA. The treatment with V2R antagonist (V2A) in the presence and absence of OT induced diuresis, sodium and potassium outflow. V2A in the presence of OT-GKR only partially increased diuresis and natriuresis. Autoradiography and molecular docking analysis showed potent binding of OT-GKR to V2R. Finally, the release of cAMP from CHO cells overexpressing V2 receptor was induced by low concentration of AVP (EC50:4.2e-011), at higher concentrations of OT (EC50:3.2e-010) and by the highest concentrations of OT-GKR (EC50:1.1e-006). OT-GKR potentiated cAMP release when combined with AVP, but blocked cAMP release when combined with OT. These results suggest that OT-GKR by competing for the OT renal receptor (OTR) and binding to V2R in the kidney, induces anti-diuretic, anti-natriuretic, and anti-kaliuretic effects.

Salivary Oxytocin Concentration Associates with the Subjective Feeling of Body Ownership during the Rubber Hand Illusion.

Oxytocin is a hormone of the posterior pituitary that promotes lactation, maternal bonding, and birth. Recent studies have shown that oxytocin may modulate social recognition in both sexes, and thus it may be related to empathy. Brain regions that are associated with social recognition and empathy (e.g., the insular cortex) are activated in the rubber hand illusion (RHI), which involves illusory ownership of a rubber hand caused by brush strokes applied synchronously to both a rubber hand and one of the participant's hand, which is hidden from view. It is intriguing to examine whether oxytocin modulates plastic changes in body representation, such as the changes occurring in the RHI. In the present study, we investigated the relationship between salivary oxytocin concentration and the feeling of rubber hand ownership. Brush strokes were applied synchronously or asynchronously to the participant's hand and a rubber hand on different days. Salivary oxytocin was measured before and after the behavioral tasks. We found that participants who had high concentrations of salivary oxytocin tended to feel strong ownership of the rubber hand. We also found that the participants with a high autism spectrum quotient (AQ) score who particularly felt difficulties in social skills and communications tended to feel weak rubber hand ownership. We observed that illusory body ownership was closely linked to social communications and a related neuroendocrine basis. The results of the present study suggest that an individual's salivary oxytocin concentration can predict the extent to which the individual experiences the RHI; furthermore, oxytocin might modulate the sensation of body ownership.

Primate paternal care: Interactions between biology and social experience

This article is part of a Special Issue “Parental Care”.We review recent research on the roles of hormones and social experiences on the development of paternal care in humans and non-human primates. Generally, lower concentrations of testosterone and higher concentrations of oxytocin are associated with greater paternal responsiveness. Hormonal changes prior to the birth appear to be important in preparation for fatherhood and changes after the birth are related to how much time fathers spend with offspring and whether they provide effective care. Prolactin may facilitate approach and the initiation of infant care, and in some biparental non-human primates, it affects body mass regulation. Glucocorticoids may be involved in coordinating reproductive and parental behavior between mates. New research involving intranasal oxytocin and neuropeptide receptor polymorphisms may help us understand individual variation in paternal responsiveness. This area of research, integrating both biological factors and the role of early and adult experience, has the potential to suggest individually designed interventions that can strengthen relationships between fathers and their partners and offspring.

Association of oxytocin level and less severe forms of childhood maltreatment history among healthy Japanese adults involved with child care.

Background: Oxytocin (OT) is known to play a role in stress regulation. The association between childhood maltreatment history and neuropeptide OT concentration is inconsistent due to the varying degrees of severity of childhood maltreatment, among other contributing factors. Less severe forms of childhood maltreatment history might enhance OT concentrations as a response to coping with social stress within the family. The purpose of this study is to investigate the association between less severe forms of childhood maltreatment history and OT concentrations among healthy adults.Method: Eighty adults (49 women and 31 men) with 18- to 48-month-old children were recruited using a snowball sample in Tokyo, Japan. Urine samples were collected for OT measurement. Less severe (low and moderate) childhood maltreatment history, including physical abuse, physical neglect, emotional abuse, emotional neglect, and sexual abuse, was assessed using the self-report questionnaire, the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire.Results: Less severe physical abuse was significantly associated with higher OT concentration after adjusting for age (p = 0.014). Also, less severe forms of physical abuse were independently significantly associated with higher OT concentration after controlling for other types of childhood maltreatment (p = 0.027). A positive dose-response association between the number of less severe childhood maltreatment types and OT concentration was observed (p = 0.031).Conclusion: A history of less severe forms of childhood physical abuse was associated with higher OT concentration in healthy adults. Poly-victimization of several types of less severe childhood maltreatment was also associated with higher OT concentrations. Less severe forms of childhood maltreatment might enhance OT concentrations in order to cope with social stress.

Early involvement in friendships predicts later plasma concentrations of oxytocin and vasopressin in juvenile rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta).

The neuropeptides oxytocin (OT) and arginine vasopressin (AVP) are involved in social bonding in attachment relationships, but their role in friendship is poorly understood. We investigated whether rhesus macaques’ (Macaca mulatta) friendships at age one predicted plasma OT and AVP at two later time points. Subjects were 54 rhesus macaques at the California National Primate Research Center (CNPRC). Blood was drawn during a brief capture-and-release in the home cage, and plasma assayed for OT and AVP using an enzyme immunoassay (EIA). Separate linear mixed models for each sex tested the effects of dominance rank, age, sampling time point, housing condition, parturition status, two blood draw timing measures, and five friendship types: proximity friendships, play friendships, reciprocal friendships (a preference for a peer that also preferred the subject), multiplex friendships (friendships displayed in more than one behavioral domain), and total number of friendships. Females’ number of reciprocal and play friendships at age one significantly predicted later OT; additionally, these two friendship types interacted with rank, such that high-ranking females with the fewest friendships had the highest OT concentrations. Friendship did not predict later OT levels in males, however proximity, play, reciprocal, and total number of friendships predicted males’ plasma AVP. Play and total number of friendships also tended to predict AVP in females. Our results show that peripheral measures of neuroendocrine functioning in juvenile rhesus monkeys are influenced by early involvement in friendships. Friendships have an especially strong impact on an individual’s psychosocial development, and our data suggest OT and AVP as potential underlying mechanisms. Moreover, sex differences in the functioning of the OT and AVP systems, and their relation to friendship, may have important clinical implications for the use of OT as a therapeutic, as well as informing the social context in which it is administered.

Oxytocin Concentrations Are Crucial

The causes of postnatal depression are a mesh of physical, hormonal, biochemical, psychological, social, and societal factors. This means that successful treatment will have to take into consideration all these factors and include them in the treatment concept. Additionally, oxytocin is of great importance during the entire period of pregnancy, birth, and puerperium. A low oxytocin concentration in the last four weeks of the pregnancy seems to be associated with an increased risk of developing symptoms of postpartum depression within the first two weeks after the birth. Good bonding between mother and baby after the birth, such as is standard in certified “baby-friendly hospitals” (www.babyfreundlich.org) increases the concentration of oxytocin. Concentrations of oxytocin as well as prolactin are higher in breastfeeding women; breast feeding therefore reduces the psychological stress reaction (1, 3). Very few publications consider the difference between non-breastfeeding women and breastfeeding women. Extensive discussions about the influence of hormone imbalances ignore lactation and nature’s potential protective mechanisms owing to high concentrations of prolactin and oxytocin during the breastfeeding period (1, 3). Breast feeding problems may be an indication of postpartum depression. Hypothyroidism is also associated with severe “baby blues” or fatigue, in addition to reduced lactation, and should therefore also be excluded (1). With regard to pharmacotherapy, it is worth drawing attention to the 8th edition of Arzneimittel in Schwangerschaft und Stillzeit (2012) by Schaefer et al. It is also worth pointing out that medication-led weaning using prolactin inhibitors can increase depression and should therefore be avoided at all cost. If weaning is necessary physiological weaning without drugs is the preferred option (2).

A. Patel, P. Forsythe, Saunders Solutions in Veterinary Practice: Small Animal Dermatology, Elsevier, London, 2008, ISBN9780702028700, 388 pp.; £43.99 (paper)

Dogs are exceptionally well adapted to life close to humans, and alterations in their endocrine system during the domestication process may be an underlying mechanism. In particular, it has been suggested that low circulating cortisol concentrations in conjunction with simultaneously high oxytocin concentrations may have resulted in dogs' increased docility (‘selection for tameness’ hypothesis) and heightened propensity to interact and form relationships with humans (‘hypersociability’ hypothesis) compared to wolves. To investigate this, we analyzed cortisol and oxytocin metabolite concentrations from urine samples of hand-raised, pack-living domestic dogs and their non-domestic relatives, grey wolves. Based on the hypotheses outlined above, we predicted lower cortisol but higher oxytocin concentrations in dogs than wolves. In contrast to our prediction, we found higher cortisol concentrations in dogs than wolves. However, oxytocin concentrations were higher in dogs compared to wolves although the effect was relatively small. Indeed, male dogs had the highest oxytocin concentrations while female dogs' oxytocin concentrations were comparable to wolves'. Feeding status, reproductive phase, and conspecific social interactions also significantly affected cortisol and oxytocin concentrations. Furthermore, we compared two methods of correcting for variable water content of urine samples. We discuss our results in light of physiological and behavioral changes during domestication and highlight the importance of accounting for confounding variables in future studies.

Effect of the ethanolic extract of Nauclea latifolia (Family: Rubiaceae) on the isolated uterus of non-pregnant rats

The plant Nauclea latifolia has been reported to be used by traditional healers to arrest pre-term labour. The ethanolic extract of the root of N. latifolia was screened for activity via agonist–induced contractions of uterine smooth muscles in non-pregnant female albino rats. The extract, at 0.1 and 0.2 mg/ml (final bath concentration), was tested against oxytocin (4×10-5 to 8×10-2 I.U/ml: final bath concentration), acetylcholine (0.04 to 40 μg/ml: final bath concentration) and ergometrine (0.05 to 100 μg/ml: final bath concentration) induced contractions invitro. The effect of the extract was compared to that of (0.004 μg/ml: final bath concentration) salbutamol and (0.004 μg/ml: final bath concentration) atropine. Both concentrations of the extract significantly shifted the concentration response curves of oxytocin (P<0.01), acetylcholine (P<0.0001) and ergometrine (P<0.0001) to the right with a slight depression of the Emax. This shift was more with the 0.2 mg/ml concentration, thus suggesting the possibility of a dose dependent action. There was no statistical significant decrease in Emax by 0.1 mg/ml of the extract, while the 0.2 mg/ml produced a significant depression (P<0.05) of the Emax, which like salbutamol could not be overwhelmed by higher concentrations of oxytocin. Similarly a significant reduction of the Emax of acetylcholine induced contractions was produced by 0.2 mg/ml, while both concentrations (0.1 and 0.2 mg/ml) produced significant (P<0.0001) reduction in Emax of ergometrine. It can thus be concluded that N latifolia root extractreduces oxytocin, acetylcholine and ergometrine-induced uterine contractions. These inhibitions were non-competitive. The result indicates an anti-abortifacient property. Key words: Antagonism, Nauclea latifolia, root extract, uterine-contraction, uterus

Oxytocin-Induced Postinhibitory Rebound Firing Facilitates Bursting Activity in Oxytocin Neurons

During parturition and lactation, neurosecretory oxytocin (OT) neurons in the hypothalamus achieve pulsatile hormone secretion by coordinated bursts of firing that occur throughout the neuronal population. This activity is partly controlled by somatodendritic release of OT, which facilitates the onset and recurrence of synchronized bursting. To further investigate the cellular mechanisms underlying the control exerted by OT on the activity of its own neurons, we studied the effects of the peptide on membrane potential and synaptic activity in OT neurons in hypothalamic organotypic slice cultures. Bath application of low concentrations of OT (<100 nM) facilitated GABA(A) receptor-mediated inhibitory transmission through a presynaptic mechanism without affecting membrane potential and excitatory glutamatergic synaptic activity. The facilitatory action of OT on GABAergic transmission was dose-dependent, starting at 25 nM and disappearing at concentrations >100 nM. As shown previously, higher concentrations of OT (>500 nM) had the opposite effect, inhibiting GABA(A) receptors via a postsynaptic mechanism. Surprisingly, OT-mediated facilitation of GABAergic transmission promoted action potential firing in 40% of the neurons. Each action potential occurred at the end of the repolarizing phase of an inhibitory potential. Pharmacological dissection revealed that this firing involved the activation of low-threshold activated calcium channels. Detailed statistical analysis showed that OT-mediated firing upregulated bursting activity in OT neurons. It is thus likely to optimize OT secretion and, as a consequence, facilitate delivery and milk ejection in mammals.

The effect of oxytocin on cell proliferation in the human prostate is modulated by gonadal steroids: implications for benign prostatic hyperplasia and carcinoma of the prostate

Oxytocin (OT) is implicated in regulating prostate growth. OT concentrations are increased in benign, and decreased in malignant prostate disease. This study investigated whether the altered concentrations of OT present in prostate disease affect the proliferation of malignant and non-malignant human prostate cells. The effects of varying concentrations of OT and gonadal steroids on cell proliferation of non-malignant prostatic epithelial (PrEC) and stromal (PrSC) cells and androgen dependent (LNCaP) and independent (PC-3) malignant cell lines were assessed. OT (>0.5 nmol . L(-1)) had no effect on PrEC proliferation when cells were cultured alone. When co-cultured with PrSC and gonadal steroids, OT inhibited epithelial cell proliferation. OT inhibited PrSC proliferation, when cells were cultured alone. When PrSC were co-cultured in the presence of estrogen physiological concentrations of OT were inhibitory. No effect on cell proliferation was observed with higher concentrations of OT. OT did not affect the proliferation of malignant cell lines in the absence of androgens but, in the presence of testosterone, low concentrations of OT (<1 nmol . L(-1)) stimulated proliferation of PC-3 cells. Disruption of caveolae in the plasma membrane removed the inhibitory effect of OT on PrSC proliferation but did not affect the stimulatory effect of OT on PC-3 cells cultured in the presence of androgens. Changes in prostatic concentrations of OT that occur with aging and malignant disease may act to facilitate cell proliferation. The localization of the OT receptor within the plasma membrane modulates OT's proliferative response in the prostate.

RhoA inhibition is a key step in pituicyte stellation induced by A(1)-type adenosine receptor activation.

Pituicyte stellation in vitro represents a useful model with which to study morphological changes that occur in vivo in these cells during times of high neurohypophysial hormone output. This model has helped us establish the hypothesis of a purinergic regulation of pituicyte morphological plasticity. We first show that ATP induces stellation in 37% of pituicytes, an effect that is secondary to the metabolism of ATP to adenosine. Adenosine-induced stellation of pituicytes appears to be mediated by A(1)-type receptors. The effect is independent of intracellular calcium and does not involve the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. The basal (nonstellate) state of pituicytes depends on tonic activation of a Rho GTPase because both C3 transferase (a Rho inhibitor) and Y-27632 (an inhibitor of p160Rho kinase) can induce stellation. Lysophosphatidic acid, a Rho activator, blocks the morphogenic effect of adenosine dose-dependently. Using a specific RhoA pull-down assay, we also show that downregulation of activated RhoA is the key event coupling A(1) receptor activation to pituicyte stellation, via F-actin depolymerization and microtubule reorganization. Finally, both vasopressin and oxytocin can prevent or reverse adenosine-induced stellation. The effects of vasopressin, and those of high concentrations of oxytocin, are mediated through V(1a) receptors. Placed within the context of the relevant literature, our data suggest the possibility of a purinergic regulation of pituicyte morphological plasticity and subsequent modulation of hormone release, with these hormones providing a negative feedback mechanism.

Oxytocin does not directly affect vascular tone in vessels from nonpregnant and pregnant rats

Recent evidence suggests oxytocin (OT) may regulate vascular tone. OT and its receptor (OTR) have been identified in the rat heart and great vessels. Expression of OT and OTR is increased in some tissues during pregnancy. We hypothesized that the OT/OTR system may be a physiological regulator of vascular tone and mediate the decreased vascular resistance noted during pregnancy. Using a wire myograph system, we measured changes in vascular tone in response to OT in small mesenteric arteries, uterine arcuate arteries, and thoracic aorta from nonpregnant and pregnant rats. Additionally, we used reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) to measure mRNA for OTR in these vascular tissues. Although OTR mRNA was identified by RT-PCR, OT did not elicit a vasodilatory effect in any of the vessels studied. High concentrations of OT (>10(-8) M) caused vasoconstriction that was eliminated by a specific vasopressin V(1a) receptor antagonist. Although it may have an indirect effect in regulation of peripheral resistance, we conclude that OT is unlikely to play a direct role in the physiological regulation of vascular tone.