Higher Number Of Life Events Research Articles

Adolescent Stress, Psychological Distress and Well-Being: A Gender Analysis

Adolescents’ mental health and well-being is a public health concern. We examined gender differences in stress, psychological distress and well-being and predictors of distress and well-being in adolescent boys and girls. A cross-sectional study with a sample of 954 Spanish adolescents aged between 13 and 17 years was conducted. All participants were assessed through questionnaires that measure psychological distress, eudaimonic well-being, life satisfaction, stress, coping styles, masculine/instrumental and feminine/expressive traits, self-esteem and social support. We find that girls scored higher than boys in psychological distress, chronic stress, minor daily hassles, social support, eudaimonic well-being and in feminine-expressive trait whereas boys scored higher than girls in detachment coping style and in masculine-instrumental trait. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis revealed that the most relevant variable in the psychological distress of both girls and boys was higher emotional coping style, followed by higher number of life events during the previous year. The most relevant variables in boys’ and girls’ psychological well-being were higher self-esteem and social support. Higher scores in rational coping style and in masculine/instrumental trait were also important predictors of eudaimonic well-being in adolescent boys and girls. Furthermore, in boys, older age was associated with greater distress and lower well-being and life satisfaction, while, as for the girls, a smaller number of life events and greater emotional coping style were associated with lower eudaimonic well-being and life satisfaction. Results are relevant for the design of policies and programs aimed at promoting mental health and well-being in adolescence.

Gender, life events, and mental well-being in emerging adulthood.

Emerging adulthood is a critical period of life involving many life transitions that may generate stress and compromise health and mental well-being. To know the most frequent life events of women and men in emerging adulthood, analyzing also the relevance that such stressors have on their psychological well-being and life satisfaction. A second aim is to determine the relevance of age, educational level, most frequent life events, coping styles, and perceived social support as risk and protective factors for well-being. The sample consisted of 2,000 individuals from the general Spanish population (55% women), aged between 18 and 29, who were assessed using five questionnaires and scales measuring life events, coping styles, life satisfaction, psychological well-being, and social support. The findings showed that 90% of the sample had experienced one or more life events during the previous year and that a higher number of life events experienced over the past year was associated with lower mental well-being. Multiple regression analyses made clear that, although some events experienced in the previous year (namely, family conflicts and change in the relationship with parents) were associated with lower women's and men's well-being, the most important determinants of well-being in either gender were coping styles; however, some predictors of women's well-being proved different from those of men. In the case of women, family and intimate partner conflicts predicted lower life satisfaction and psychological well-being was lower in the case of family conflicts. As for men, work or academic life events predicted lower life satisfaction. These research findings are relevant for the design of programs and strategies to improve mental well-being in emerging adulthood.

Stressful Life Events and Late-Life Cognitive Function in Community-Dwelling Chinese Older Adults: Findings from a Population-Based Cohort Study in the Greater Chicago Area

The majority of studies on stressful life events focus on posttraumatic stress disorder and depression, while less is known about whether the cumulative exposure to stressful life events over the life course will deteriorate cognitive function. This study aims to investigate the association between lifetime stressful life events and cognitive function in an immigrant population. The data were drawn from the Population Study of Chinese Elderly in Chicago (PINE). Face-to-face interviews were conducted with a sample of 3125 U.S. Chinese older adults in 2017–2019. Twelve types of stressful life events were assessed: physical assault, residential fires, sexual assault, miscarriage, abortion, imprisonment, being falsely accused, divorce, death of a loved one, being robbed, experiencing cancer, and being homeless. Cognitive function was measured through global cognition, episodic memory, working memory, processing speed, and Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Linear regression was performed. Older adults who experienced a higher number of life events were associated with higher global cognition (b = 0.11, SE = 0.01, p < 0.001), episodic memory (b = 0.14, SE = 0.02, p < 0.001), working memory (b = 0.17, SE = 0.03, p < 0.001), processing speed (b = 1.92, SE = 0.18, p < 0.001), and MMSE (b = 0.29, SE = 0.07, p < 0.001), while controlling for age, gender, income, education, medical comorbidities, ADL, and depressive symptoms. In contrast with earlier studies, we identified the positive relationships between aggregate and individual life events and cognition. Older adults who had prior experience with stressful life events could demonstrate an advantage over those without such experiences. In addition, older adults who experienced life event(s) during adulthood and old age are associated with higher cognitive function. Further studies could investigate how individuals respond to stressful life events and how the underlying resilience mechanism would promote cognitive function.

Stress and Psychological Distress in Emerging Adulthood: A Gender Analysis.

Emerging adulthood is a critical period of life that entails many life transitions in living arrangements, relationships, education and employment, which can generate stress and psychological distress in the emerging adult. The aim of the present study was to assess the relevance of stress, coping styles, self-esteem and perceived social support in the distress of emerging adult women and men. The sample consists of 4816 people (50% females) from the Spanish general population, ranging in age from 18 to 29 years old. All participants were assessed through questionnaires and scales that assess psychological distress, stress, coping styles, self-esteem and social support. Women scored higher than men in psychological distress, chronic stress, minor daily hassles, emotional coping style and social support, whereas men scored higher than women in rational and detachment coping styles and in self-esteem. Psychological distress was significantly predicted in women and men by high emotional coping style, lower self-esteem, high number of life events, and less social support. Another statistically significant predictor in men was less detachment coping style, whereas in women it was high chronic stress. The results of this research are relevant to healthcare professionals interested in improving the mental health of the emerging adult.

S29. ONE-CARBON METABOLISM AND STRESS IN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS WITH PSYCHOSIS RISK SYNDROME: PRELIMINARY DATA

BackgroundA dysregulation in one-carbon metabolism, involving folate, vitamin B12 and homocysteine (Hcys) could be implicated in the physiopathology of schizophrenia (for a review, Frankenburg, 2007). Higher Hcys levels have been associated with the disease compared to healthy controls in adults as well as in children and adolescents (Levere et al, 2014). Up to our knowledge, there are no studies in children and adolescents at risk for schizophrenia and other psychosis (Psychosis Risk Syndrome, PRS) testing the one-carbon metabolism parameters. Only a few groups have published results focused only in this population (for a review, Tor et al, 2018). This study aims to compare blood parameters associated with one-carbon metabolism, the clinical and demographic characteristics and stressful life events of a sample of children and adolescents with PRS and healthy controls (HC).MethodsA prospective longitudinal study in which help-seeking subjects who met PRS criteria were recruited from the Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology departments of Hospital Clinic and Hospital Sant Joan de Déu (Barcelona, Spain). Inclusion criteria were: 1) Attenuated positive or negative symptoms in the previous 12 months; 2) Brief intermittent psychotic symptoms; 3)First or second degree relative with schizophrenia or schizotypical disorder plus impairment of functioning; age:10–17 years. Exclusion criteria: IQ<70 and a diagnosis of neurodevelopmental disorder. At baseline, the Semistructured Interview for Prodromal Syndromes and Scale of Prodromal Symptoms (SIPS/SOPS) were administered, as well as a clinical scale battery including measures of stress such as the Stressful Live Events Scale. Blood analysis measuring vitamin B12, folic acid and homocysteine were done. Types of treatment, and dosages were also registered. A sample of age and gender matched HCs were also included. Exclusion criteria: 1st or 2nd degree familiar with a psychotic disorder; a diagnosis of neurodevelopmental disorder and IQ<70.The same assessment was performed in the HC sample.Results60 PRS subjects (14.9±1.8 years, range: 11–17 years; 74.1% females) and 40 HC (15.4±1.5 years, range: 11–17 years; 65% females) were included. In the PRS sample, 59.4% met criterion 1 for inclusion. 59.4% had familiar history of psychotic disorder. All the SOPS, GAF, LSP, Hamilton and Young scores were significantly higher in PRS than in HC. Number of stressful life events and their subjective affectation were also higher in PRS subjects than in HC (t=-4.939, p<<0.001; t=-5.380, p<0.001). There were no differences in Hcys and, folic acid levels between PRS subjects and HC. However, vitamin B12 levels were different between them, with lower levels in PRS vs HC (425.7±185.7 vs.526.4±159.1, t=2.755, p=0.007) without reaching deficit levels (<300 pg/mL). Higher Hcys levels was correlated with higher number of life events (R=0.245, p=0.037). Lower levels of vitamin B12 were correlated with higher number of stressful life events (R=-0.393, p=0.001) and higher subjective affectation (R=-0.381, p=0.001).DiscussionIn children and adolescents with PRS, lower vitamin B12 levels than HC have been found, which were associated with higher stressful life events and their subjective affectation. Vitamin B12 is key for brain development, and the possible dysregulation of one carbon metabolism and their association with stress in children and adolescents at risk for psychosis should be further explored as well as the diet of these subjects in a bigger sample to draw consistent conclusions.

Childhood life events and disturbed eating behaviors in a population-based cohort in the Netherlands

Abstract Background Adversities such as maltreatment and physical and emotional abuse are recognized risk factors for eating disorders (EDs) in adolescents and adults, but whether such adversities are also associated with eating behaviors in childhood has been less explored. Our aim was to examine whether a wide range of life events can predict emotional overeating and restrained eating in childhood, which are potential precursors of EDs. Methods The study is embedded in Generation R, a prospective population-based cohort. The sample included 4653 children aged 10 years. Emotional overeating was assessed with the Children’s Eating Behavior Questionnaire, and restrained eating with the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire. Mothers reported the occurrence of 24 adverse events in their offspring’s childhood. Regression analyses were conducted, both unadjusted and adjusted for gender, ethnicity, and parental education and psychopathology. Results Unadjusted models showed that a higher number of life events is associated with more emotional overeating and more restrained eating; effect estimates attenuated slightly in the adjusted model, but remained significant (per 1 more life event: B = 0.05, 95%CI 0.02-0.08; B = 0.04, 95%CI 0.02-0.07, respectively). Particularly, participants who experienced at least 3 life events had high levels of emotional overeating and restrained eating (adjusted model: B = 0.20, 95%CI 0.06-0.33; B = 0.21, 95%CI 0.08-0.33, respectively). The specific maltreatment related life events were not significantly associated with eating behaviors, probably due to low prevalence of these events (n = 149). Conclusions This novel, population-based study shows that early life adversities may predict disordered eating behaviors in childhood. The results are in line with clinical studies on life events and EDs. If the studied eating behaviors are indeed precursors of EDs, these results may offer potential for prevention and early intervention to avoid the development of full-blown EDs. Key messages Eating disorders account for more than 2% of the global disease burden, thus representing a major Public Mental Health topic in the EU; more and new measures are required for early detection purposes. Life adversities predict disordered eating behaviors in childhood, which are considered precursors of eating disorders: early detection of this association may avoid development of eating disorders.

Life events and depressive symptoms among pregnant women in India: Moderating role of resilience and social support.

Recent life events may be significant risk factors for depression during pregnancy. However, its association with the individual's resilience and social support is not clear. To understand the association between life events and depression during pregnancy and whether the association is moderated by resilience and social support. This study is part of a prospective cohort study on perinatal mental health in an urban antenatal clinic, which included 589 women recruited in the first and early second trimester. Participants were administered the Life Events Checklist adapted from the Social Readjustment Rating Scale by the authors to assess life events; Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-10 to assess depression and resilience, respectively. The relationship between life events (12 months prior to the time of assessment) and antenatal depression and the moderating role of resilience and social support was analysed. Thirty-eight women (6.5%) who had depression (EPDS score ⩾ 11) had significantly higher number of life events (i.e. on average three; U = 3,826; p < .01), lower resilience scores ( U = 4,053; p < .01) and lower perceived social support ( U = 2,423; p < .01) as compared to those who were negative for depression on EPDS. Life events predicted depression during pregnancy; however, the relationship was moderated by social support but not by resilience. The pregnant women who experienced life events may experience depression during the first trimester of pregnancy, but the effect could possibly be reduced by enhancing the social support.

Services use by children and parents in multiproblem families

BackgroundMultiproblem families are multi-users of psychosocial and health care services, but little is known about factors associated with their care utilization in the general population. The aim of this study was to assess which factors were associated with the overall and psychosocial care use of two members—i.e., child and parent—of each multiproblem family. MethodsDuring well-child visits or psychosocial care, we identified 354 children and their parents who had problems in several life domains (response 69.1%). We used multivariate stepwise backward logistic regression analyses to identify the factors related to their use of overall and psychosocial care. ResultsA child's overall care use was associated with greater social support from family and friends (odds ratio, OR, 95% confidence interval, CI; OR=1.05, CI=1.01–1.08) compared to less perceived social support; and with more psychosocial problems in the child (OR=1.84, CI=1.04–3.24). Child's psychosocial care use was more likely among older children (OR=1.94, CI=1.20–3.15); greater social support by family and friend (OR=1.03, CI=1.00–1.06); more psychosocial problems (OR=1.75, CI=1.04–2.97); and when there were more parenting concerns (OR=1.19, CI=1.06–1.33). Parental overall and psychosocial care use was more likely when the family experienced a higher number of life events (OR=1.27, CI=1.17–1.38, and OR=1.39, CI=1.25–1.55). ConclusionsCare use in multiproblem families is related to family factors as well as psychosocial problems. It may be possible to use these family risk factors to identify such families early, whose intensive care use is possibly explained by the relationship with inadequate use of social support.

Changes in spiritual well-being and psychological outcomes in ovarian cancer survivors.

Because of the poor prognosis of ovarian cancer and concomitant distress, understanding contributors to positive well-being is critical. This study examines spiritual growth as a domain of posttraumatic growth and its contribution to longitudinal emotional outcomes in ovarian cancer. Ovarian cancer patients (N=241) completed measures assessing spirituality (Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy-Spiritual Well-being-12; subscales: faith, meaning, and peace), depression (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale), cancer-specific anxiety (Impact of Event Scale), and total mood disturbance (TMD; Profile of Mood States) prior to surgery and 1-year postsurgery. Stressful life events in the year after diagnosis were measured at 1-year postsurgery. Regressions examined the association between changes in spirituality and depression, anxiety, and TMD at 1-year postsurgery. Additionally, spiritual change was examined as a moderator of the effect of recent life events on mood. Increases in peace were related to lower depression (β=-.40, P<.001), anxiety (β=-.20, P=.004), and TMD (β=-.41, P<.001) at 1year. Changes in meaning and faith were unrelated to all outcomes. Additionally, changes in peace moderated the effect of stressful life events on depression (β=-.14, P=.027), anxiety (β=-.16, P=.05), and TMD (β=-.17, P=.01), such that those with a high number of life events paired with a decrease in peace experienced the worst psychological outcomes at 1year. These findings suggest that the quality of peace may be the most adaptive facet of spiritual growth in cancer patients. Furthermore, changes in peace appear to moderate the effect of life events on psychological well-being.

Prevalence and determinants of symptoms of common mental disorders in retired professional Rugby Union players

The primary aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of symptoms of common mental disorders (CMD) (distress, anxiety/depression, sleeping disturbance, adverse nutrition behaviour, adverse alcohol behaviour and smoking) among retired professional Rugby Union players. The secondary aim was to explore the associations between stressors (life events, Rugby Union career dissatisfaction) and the health conditions under study. Therefore, cross-sectional analyses were conducted on baseline questionnaires from an ongoing prospective cohort study of retired professional Rugby Union players. An electronic questionnaire was established using validated questionnaires to assess symptoms of CMD and stressors. The electronic questionnaire was subsequently distributed to retired players by the national Rugby Union players’ associations in France, Ireland and South Africa. Among 295 retired professional Rugby Union players (mean age of 38 years), prevalence rates were 25% for distress, 28% for anxiety/depression, 29% for sleeping disturbance, 62% for adverse nutrition behaviour, 15% for smoking and 24% for adverse alcohol behaviour. A higher number of life events were associated with distress (OR = 1.2; 95% CI 1.1–1.4), anxiety/depression (OR = 1.6; 95% CI 1.2–2.1), sleeping disturbance (OR = 1.6; 95% CI 1.2–2.1) and adverse nutrition behaviour (OR = 1.8; 95% CI 1.3–2.5). A higher level of dissatisfaction of the player's Rugby Union career was associated with distress (OR = 0.9; 95% CI 0.8–1.0), sleeping disturbance (OR = 0.9; 95% CI 0.9–1.0), smoking (OR = 0.9; 95% CI 0.9–1.0) and adverse nutrition behaviour (OR = 0.9; 95% CI 0.8–0.9). In conclusion, our study suggests that prevalence of symptoms of CMD is high among retired professional Rugby Union players, being associated with both a higher number of life events and a higher level of Rugby Union career dissatisfaction.

TBI 13 years on: factors associated with post-traumatic growth

Purpose: To investigate factors associated with post-traumatic growth (PTG) 13 years after severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) and to see if PTG had remained consistent between 11 and 13 years after injury. Method: TBI survivors (n = 21), were interviewed and completed face-to face administration of questionnaires measuring PTG and factors potentially associated with PTG. The design was a longitudinal follow-up study. Results: Factors significantly associated with PTG included: having a sense of personal meaning (purpose and coherence), high life satisfaction now, social support, high-activity levels, a high number of life events, having paid work, new stable relationships after injury, milder disability, and having religious faith. Having a high level of “purpose” was the best predictor of PTG. There was no change in PTG between 11 and 13 years after injury suggesting PTG is a relatively stable phenomenon once established after the early years. Conclusion: Clinicians should be aware of PTG and how it is associated with factors such as “meaning” and “purpose” as well as demographic factors such as, social support, activity such as work, new and stable relationships, milder disability and a shift towards spiritual values. Clinicians can focus advice, resource and effort on supporting these developments.Implications for RehabilitationPeople with TBI do perceive benefits or post-traumatic growth (PTG), after time, which once established remains stable.Factors such as having a sense of “meaning” and “purpose”, are predictors of PTG.Social support, activity such as work, new and stable relationships, a shift toward spiritual values, and milder disability are also associated with PTG.Clinicians can focus effort into supporting these developments.

The prevalence of childhood adversity among healthcare workers and its relationship to adult life events, distress and impairment

Objective We investigated the prevalence of childhood adversity among healthcare workers and if such experiences affect responses to adult life stress. Methods A secondary analysis was conducted of a 2003 study of 176 hospital-based healthcare workers, which surveyed lifetime traumatic events, recent life events, psychological distress, coping, social support, and days off work due to stress or illness. Results Sixty eight percent (95% CI 61.1–74.9) of healthcare workers had one or more experience of violence, abuse or neglect, 33% (95% CI 26.1–40.0) before the age of 13. Compared to healthcare workers who did not experience childhood adversity, those who did reported more recent life events (median 11 vs. 5 over the previous 6 months, p < .001) and greater psychological distress (median score 17 vs. 13, p < .001). The relationship between life events and psychological distress was not linear. Most healthcare workers without childhood adversity (73%) reported a low number of life events which were not associated with psychological distress. Most healthcare workers with childhood adversity (81%) reported a higher number of life events, for which the correlation between events and distress was moderately strong (Spearman's rho = .50, p < .001). Childhood adversity was also associated with more missed work days. Each of these outcomes was higher in 22 healthcare workers (13%) who had experienced more than one type of childhood adversity. Conclusions Childhood adversity is common among healthcare workers and is associated with a greater number of life events, more psychological distress and impairment.

Evaluating the Role of Life Events and Sustaining Conditions in Weight Loss Maintenance

Background. Recent qualitative research indicates that life events can enhance behaviour change maintenance. if a number of sustaining conditions are met. This study aimed to quantitatively test this theory in the context of weight loss maintenance. Method. Based upon their weight histories participants were classified as either successful (n = 431) or unsuccessful (n = 592) dieters and all completed questionnaires relating to life events, choice, the function of eating and exercise and the model of their weight problem. Findings. Successful dieters reported a higher number of life events than unsuccessful dieters particularly for events such as “clothes did not fit me”, “doctor's recommendation” and “reached my heaviest weight”. Successful participants also indicated reduced choice over their previous unhealthy diet, more choice over their exercise behaviours and more benefits from the new healthy behaviours. They were also less likely to attribute their previous increased weight to any medical and psychological factors. This was accompanied by a belief about the effectiveness of behavioural solutions to their weight problem. Discussion. Life events can promote behaviour change for some individuals. This change is facilitated by a reduction in choice and disruption of function over the unhealthy behaviours, and a belief that behavioural solutions will be effective.

Clinical and psychosocial characteristics of children with nonepileptic seizures

Objective:The aim of this study is to present a comprehensive profile of clinical and psychosocial characteristics of children with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures and to assess the short-term outcome of these patients.Materials and Methods:The subjects were consecutive cases of children with a diagnosis of nonepileptic seizures (N=17, mean age = 10.7 years, S.D. = 1.26) and two groups of control groups matched on age and sex: true seizure group and healthy controls. All the children were recruited from the out-patient services of the Department of Pediatrics of a tertiary care teaching hospital in North India. Detailed history taking and clinical examination was done in the case of every child. A standard 18 channel EEG was done in all the children and a video EEG was done in 12 cases of children with nonepileptic seizures. The Childhood Psychopathology Measurement Schedule (CPMS) and Life Events Scale for Indian Children (LESIC) were used to measure the children's emotional and behavioral functioning at home, and the number of life events and the stress associated with these events in the preceding year and the year before that. Short-term outcome was examined three to six months after the diagnosis of nonepileptic seizures was made.Results:Unresponsiveness without marked motor manifestations was the most common “ictal” characteristic of the nonepileptic seizures. Pelvic thrusting, upper and lower limb movements, head movements, and vocalization were observed in less than one-third of the patients. Increased psychosocial stress and significantly higher number of life events in the preceding year were found to characterize children with nonepileptic seizures, as compared to the two control groups. The nonepileptic seizures and true seizures groups had a higher proportion of children with psychopathology scores in the clinically significant maladjustment range, as compared to those in the healthy control group. A majority of the patients (82.4%) either recovered completely or had more than 50% reduction in the frequency of their symptoms, after three to six months of initiation of therapy.Conclusions:Psychosocial stress is common among children with nonepileptic seizures. Confirmatory diagnosis by video EEG, along with prompt psychosocial intervention, often results in a favorable outcome for most children with nonepileptic seizures.

Psychosocial and demographic factors associated with response to prophylactic lithium. A systematic review for bipolar disorders

The aim was to systematically integrate the available evidence on psychosocial and demographic factors associated with response prediction to prophylactic lithium. Each psychosocial or demographic variable that was related to lithium response in at least one study was examined with respect to response prediction. If several studies were located for the same variable results were integrated using a meta-analytical approach. To account for heterogeneity of primary studies aggregation of results was based on a random-effects model. Out of 27 psychosocial and demographic variables investigated in this review, nine variables were identified as significantly related to outcome under to prophylactic lithium: (1) high social status, (2) social support, (3) good compliance, and (4) dominance may be protective against a recurrence under lithium. In contrast, (5) stress, (6) high expressed emotions, (7) neurotic personality traits, (8) unemployment, and (9) a high number of life events were identified as possible risk factors for poor response. This systematic review shows a surprisingly high number of psychosocial variables to be related to lithium response. Effect sizes were, however, small to moderate. Many variables should, therefore, be considered simultaneously to predict response.

A Growth Curve Analysis of Stress and Adolescent Drug Use

The purpose of this paper is to describe and examine one pathway by which adolescent drug use increases during early and mid-adolescence. It draws upon recent research on adolescent stress, drug use, and family processes to describe an important stage of the life course. A chief principle underlying the proposed pathway is that the cumulative effect of stressful life experiences over time can lead to a steeper escalation of drug use in adolescence. Furthermore, based on previous stress research, we propose that this effect may be moderated by factors such as sex, income, family attachment, self-esteem, and mastery. Using 4 years of panel data from the Family Health Study (n = 651 adolescents ages 11-14 during Year 1), we estimate a hierarchical growth curve model that examines the time-varying effects of stressful life events and peer relations on drug use. The results indicate that experiencing a high number of life events over time is related to a significant “growth” of drug use, even after controlling for “growth” due to age or peer relations. In addition, this relationship is moderated by family attachment; high levels of attachment serve to diminish this growth significantly.

STRESSFUL LIFE EVENTS AND DELINQUENCY ESCALATION IN EARLY ADOLESCENCE*

A recent emphasis in criminology has been on trajectories, life transitions, and turning points that affect the escalation, stabilization, or desistance of deviant behavior. The purpose of this article is to describe and examine one potential pathway of delinquency escalation in early and mid‐adolescence. It draws upon Agnew's general strain theory and research on adolescent stress to describe a significant transitory stage of the life course. A key organizing principle underlying the proposed pathway is that although stressful life events are highly variable among adolescents, experiencing a persistent or increasing number over time can lead to an escalation of delinquency. Using four years of sequential data from the Family Health Study (651 adolescents aged 11–14 during year one), we estimate a hierarchical growth‐curve model that emphasizes the effects of life events on delinquency. The model assumes that delinquency is distributed as an overdispersed Poisson random variable. The results indicate that experiencing a relatively high number of life events over time is related to a significant “growth” of delinquency but that this relationship is not affected by sex, family income, self‐esteem, or mastery.

Are Life Stress and Social Support Related to Parity in Women?

Although an increased risk of coronary heart disease has been demonstrated among women with high gravidity/parity, the mechanism by which this association may be mediated is unclear: One possible pathway that has been suggested is that pregnancy and child rearing may result in changes in factors such as stress or lifestyle. This hypothesis was tested in a sample of 541 middle-aged women who participated in a prospective study of the effects of menopause on behavioral and biological cardiovascular risk factors. Married women generally reported less chronic stress, less perceived stress, and more structural support than did unmarried women. However, the findings in this study indicated no consistent relationship between parity and stress or parity and social support in this group of middle-aged women. Only unmarried women with more children reported a higher number of life events than did women with fewer children.

Recurrent syndromal depression in caregivers.

The authors investigated recurrent syndromal depression in 103 caregivers using a structured clinical interview. Participants who cared for a family member with a progressive dementia were assessed annually for 3 years and divided into 3 groups: never depressed (47%), episodically depressed (33%), and chronically depressed (20%). Compared with the other 2 groups, the chronically depressed caregivers reported greater levels of stress, upsetting social support, depressive symptomatology, along with higher frequencies of negative life events and more negative reactions to disruptive patient behavior. Precaregiving depression predicted depression during caregiving but did not sufficiently explain recurrent depression in caregivers. Lower levels of positive social support and higher number of life events were related to chronically elevated depressive symptoms and stress.

The role of recent life events and social support in the control of diabetes mellitus: A pilot study

This study evaluated objectively the relationship between recent life events, social support systems, and blood glucose control in diabetic patients using both short-term [fasting blood sugar (FBS)] and long-term ([glycosylated hemoglobin (Hgb A-1C)] measures of control. We found that a higher number of life events was associated with a higher percentage of abnormal FBS and Hgb A-1C results, and that improved social support was associated with a smaller percentage of abnormal Hgb A-1C scores. These pilot findings are discussed in connection with a biopsychosocial approach to the understanding and management of diabetes mellitus.