Higher Levels Of Self-control Research Articles

Vision problems and positive youth development: The mediating role of vision-related quality of life and the moderating role of self-control

BackgroundVision problems are still widespread among children and adolescents in rural areas of China. Previous studies on the effects of vision problems on adolescent development have mostly focused on the effects of vision problems from a negative and problematic perspective, but the associations of vision problems with adolescent development potential and resources and potential mediating and moderating mechanisms are unclear. In this study, we investigated thepotentialmediating effects of vision-related quality of life (VR-QoL) and the potential moderating effects of self-control in the relationship between vision problems and positive youth development (PYD). MethodsUsing a two-stage sampling method, 2,837 students in grades 7–9 at five middle schools in four townships in Zhenping County, Henan Province, completed self-report questionnaires that included measurements of vision problems, PYD, VR-QoL and self-control as well as covariates such as sex. The relationships among variables were analysed with a moderated mediation model using the PROCESS macro of SPSS. ResultsThe total effect and direct effect of vision problems on PYD were not significant, but PYD was predicted negatively by the emotional dimension of VR-QoL. VR-QoL may fully mediate the association between visual problems and PYD. The moderated mediation analysis results showed that self-control enhanced the positive effect of the emotional dimension on PYD. Simple slope analyses indicated that the emotional dimension positively predicted PYD at a high level of self-control, while the emotional dimension did not significantly predict PYD at a low level of self-control. ConclusionThe present study revealed the relationship between vision problems and PYD and related mechanisms. Vision problems affected PYD through VR-QoL, and the mediating effect was greater in adolescents with high levels of self-control.

ONLINE GAMING BAHAVIOR AMONG JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS: THE ROLE OF PARENTAL CONTROL, FEAR OF MISSING OUT (FOMO), AND SELF-CONTROL

This fast-paced digitalization era has made online gaming as one of internet content that often accessed by adolescent. This study aims to analyze the influence of parental control, FOMO, and self-control towards adolescents’ online gaming behavior. For about 200 of 7th grade students from one of selected junior high school in Banyumas Regency were participated in this study. The location and sample of this study were chosen using purposive sampling technique by criteria students aged 12-14years and come from intact family. Data were collected by self-report through filling out a questionnaire. Majority of adolescents had parental control practice and self-control in moderate level, while FOMO and online gaming behavior were categorized in low level. Boys and girls were reported to have significant difference of self-control and online gaming behavior. Boys were discovered to have a higher level of self-control and online gaming behavior than girls. It also discovered that parental control and FOMO significantly influence the level of self-control. This self-control finally influences the level of adolescent’s online gaming behavior. Parents should understand how important their role is to prevent online gaming addiction among adolescents.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN THE SPORTS SECTOR: A PROFILE ANALYSIS OF EMPLOYEES

The aim of the study was to investigate the emotional intelligence levels of people working in sports organizations regarding different variables, such as gender, marital status and sports activities. A total of 272 (159 male, 113 female) participants working in sports organizations participated in the study voluntarily. The Emotional Intelligence Trait-Short Form (EQ-SF) scale was used as a data collection tool. SPSS 23 program was used for data analysis. The suitability of the data to normal distribution was examined with kurtosis and skewness values. The t test was used for comparisons between independent groups. The significance level was determined as p<.05. According to the data obtained, men's self-control, sociability sub-dimensions and total emotional intelligence scores were found to be significantly higher than women. Similarly, self-control, sociability sub-dimensions and total emotional intelligence scores of individuals who do sports were found to be significantly higher. However, in the comparison made according to marital status, no significant difference was found between emotional intelligence levels. As a result, it can be said that men working in sports organizations have higher levels of self-control, sociability and total emotional intelligence than women, and individuals who do sports have higher levels of self-control, sociability and total emotional intelligence than those who do not do sports.

The Relationship between Self-Control and Toxic Disinhibition Online Effects on Students Who Use Social Media

The emergence of the internet in the current era has transformed the paradigm of students in their interactions, learning, and even coordinating collective actions. The Internet provides convenience in the exchange of ideas and information, as well as facilitating fast, easy, and accessible communication for various segments of society. New forms of social interaction through the internet have enriched both personal and social life on a broader scale. However, despite the significant constructive potential of the internet, there is another aspect that needs attention. The internet has the potential to reinforce communication behaviors that are inappropriate, less suitable, or even unrestricted, often referred to as the "toxic disinhibition online effect" (Suler, 2004; Lapidot-lefler & Barak, 2012). When students interact in social media connected to the internet, they may exhibit signs of a lack of self-control, where a lack of understanding of relevant social signals and disregard for rules and barriers in online interactions become the main factors in the emergence of this effect. This finding is reinforced by Joinson's research (2004), which revealed differences in individual behavior in the online and offline worlds, even in similar situations. This research was conducted to explore the relationship between the level of self-control and the "toxic disinhibition online" effect on students who actively use social media. Measurement was carried out using the Toxic disinhibition online effect scale and the Self-control scale. The research involved 154 student respondents, with the majority (86%) of them being female. A total of 50.6% of the respondents had a high level of self-control. However, the results of statistical analysis showed that there was no significant relationship between self-control and the "toxic disinhibition online" effect (p = 0.604, r = -0.042), with the significance value exceeding the 95% confidence level. In conclusion, this research did not find a significant relationship between self-control and the "toxic disinhibition online" effect among students using social media. These findings provide additional insights into student online behavior and its implications for self-control in the digital context. All of these findings contribute to understanding the role of the internet in the development of social and individual behavior in the digital age.

MODEL OF PERSONALITY TRAITS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS TEACHERS

Modern trends in the development of education, increased professional requirements towards the personality of the teacher have necessitated forming the teacher's creative individuality and unlimited realization of his or her creative skills. Dealing successfully with the demands depends not only on the professionalism of the teacher but on his or her personality, in particular, on the teacher’s personal qualities.The aim of the research provided in this article was to develop a hypothetical model of professionally valued personality traits of the physical education and sports teacher of a general education institution and its experimental verification on the Georgian population. The research has shown that there is a certain difference between the hypothetical model and the personality traits obtained through the research. The experimental study conducted on the Georgian population has revealed seven key personality traits characteristic of the physical education and sports teacher: high level of rule-consciousness, high level of self-control, relaxed, socially boldness, emotional stability, and sensitivity. It has also been found that only a small number of teachers (38.8%) are open to change. A large proportion of the participants are characterized by low (28.2%) and average (50.4%) level of creativity.

O.4.5-10 Self-control and self-efficacy positively influence physical activity levels

Abstract Purpose Physical activity is essential for maintaining good health and preventing chronic diseases such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes. Understanding the factors that influence physical activity can help to design interventions that promote physical activity and prevent these diseases.The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between self-control, self-efficacy, and physical activity. Methods The study included 375 participants between the ages of 19 and 43 who completed the Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS), Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES), and a physical activity inventory. A linear regression model was used to analyze the relationships between self-control and physical activity, with self-efficacy as a mediating variable. Results The analysis of the data showed that self-control positively correlated with the number of hours per week devoted to physical activity. The results also indicated that self-efficacy mediated this relationship. Specifically, higher levels of self-control were associated with higher levels of self-efficacy, which in turn were associated with higher levels of physical activity. Conclusions The findings of this study highlight the importance of both self-control and self-efficacy in promoting physical activity. Improving self-control and self-efficacy may be effective strategies for increasing physical activity levels.

Flourishing and Self-Control in Adolescence: The Role of Perceived Parenting.

Self-control is the ability to control thoughts, emotions, and impulses to pursuit of long-term goals. Adolescents with high self-control experience higher flourishing levels. The latter refers to the fulfillment of needs for competence, relationship, and self-acceptance, as well as the possession of psychological capital such as flow and commitment. High levels of self-control also seem to be linked to a positive relationship with parents, which is crucial in adolescent flourishing. However, few studies investigated the association between flourishing, self-control, and perceived parenting in adolescence. The aim of this study was to investigate how the ability to exert self-control and the need to perceive and preserve a responsive relationship with parents would facilitate adolescents' experience of higher flourishing levels. The relationships among self-control, adolescents' perception of some paternal and maternal dimensions (closeness, communication, and parents' peer approval), and flourishing were analyzed in a sample of 335 Italian adolescents. Self-control was positively correlated with flourishing and the adolescent's perception of maternal and paternal dimensions. The PROCESS model showed that perceived maternal and paternal dimensions mediate the relationship between self-control and flourishing. These findings show the importance of self-control and parenting dimensions in promoting flourishing during adolescence.

Understanding The Relationship Between Self-Control and Grit: The Mediating Role of Academic Motivation and Attention Control

Over the past several decades, the psychological concepts of self-control and grit have gained prominence in the research literature. While these constructs have been studied extensively in isolation, there has been growing interest in understanding the relationship between the two constructs and the factors that mediate this relationship. The current study sought to examine the relationship between self-control and grit in a sample of 1079 undergraduate students (67.9% female) from twelve different state universities. Specifically, this study aimed to examine the mediating role of academic motivation and attention control in this relationship. Correlational analyses revealed that self-control and grit were positively associated with each other, as well as with academic motivation and attention control. Mediation analyses using bootstrapping procedures revealed that academic motivation and attention control partially mediated the relationship between self-control and grit. In other words, higher levels of self-control were associated with higher levels of academic motivation, which was associated with higher levels of grit. Similarly, higher levels of self-control were associated with better attention control, which was associated with higher levels of grit. These findings have important implications for understanding the components that contribute to the development of grit and suggest that interventions aimed at enhancing academic motivation and attention control may promote the development of greater grit in individuals.

Future orientation and moral judgment in chinese youths: the mediating role of moral disengagement and the moderating role of self-control.

Based on the self-regulation theory, this study aims to examine the relationship between youths' future orientation and judgment of their own immoral behaviors. A moderated mediation model was constructed to investigate the mediating role of moral disengagement and moderating role of self-control. Six hundred and twenty-eight Chinese youths, with an age range from 16 to 34 years (M = 23.08, SD = 2.65), were recruited to take part in an anonymous survey about future orientation, moral disengagement, self-control, and moral judgment. Results revealed that youths with high future orientation judged their own moral transgressions more harshly and that moral disengagement partially mediated the relationship between the two. Moderated mediation analysis further demonstrated that self-control moderated the relationship between future orientation and moral disengagement and the indirect effect between future orientation and youths' judgment of their own immoral behaviors. To be specific, the indirect effect was much stronger for youths with high levels of self-control. These findings not only enrich the research about how future orientation affects youths' judgment of their own immoral behaviors, but also reveal the underlying mechanisms between future orientation and moral judgment, which can provide practical guidance for implementing measures that effectively enhance youths' moral character and cultivate their ability to think positively about the future.

Bribery, female-led start-ups and product innovation performance in transition economies: the moderating roles of institutional support and self-control

PurposeGiven that women around the world face more exclusion in terms of limited access to economic and innovation activities than men do, it is understandable that some female-led start-ups in weak institutional environments engage in bribery to help reduce the difficulties they encounter in the face of intense business competition. However, the link between bribery and product innovation performance is unclear. The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between bribery and product innovation performance for female-led start-ups, as well as the roles of institutional support and self-control in this link.Design/methodology/approachThis empirical study evaluates survey data from female-led manufacturing start-ups in China's Yangtze River Delta region to investigate the relationship between bribery and product innovation performance.FindingsThis research shows that bribery has an inverted U-shaped impact on product innovation performance in female-led manufacturing start-ups, meaning that the product innovation performance of these firms initially increases but then decreases as the bribery intensity (i.e. the frequency and amount of bribes) increases. The authors also focus on the roles of institutional support and self-control in this link, where the authors find that this relationship is steeper for firms with strong institutional support, as well as for individual female entrepreneurs who have high levels of self-control.Practical implicationsThe findings of this study indicate that policymakers should undertake efforts to improve institutional quality (e.g. increasing clarity around decisions, providing more institutional support, etc.) and to guide female entrepreneurs to cultivate higher levels of self-control, as such efforts would reduce the appeal of, and the opportunity for, bribery.Originality/valueTo date, very few studies focus specifically on female-led enterprises in the field of bribery research. The research findings presented here on the effect of bribery in female-led start-ups on firm product innovation performance are useful to researchers, policymakers and businesspeople, as they provide a better understanding of bribery in female-led start-ups in China, which can also be extrapolated to encompass other transition economy contexts.

Individual differences in environmental wellbeing and pro-environmental behaviors explained by self-control.

Climate change is an increasing problem, with more extreme weather conditions and rising temperatures. To fulfill the temperature goals of the Paris agreement a societal change is needed, a change that requires a shift of lifestyle from all of us. If we want to change our behaviors to more sustainable ones, we need to sacrifice substantial things today to improve a future, which often seems distant and abstract. People with high level of self-control have been shown to have a better ability to visualize future events, which makes self-control an interesting trait to look at in relation to pro-environmental behavior. The aim of this study was to examine how self-control correlates with environmental well-being and environmental behavior. An internet-based survey was sent to a representative Swedish sample (n = 602). The respondents were asked to fill out a newly developed scale measuring their anxiety and security regarding environmental matters (environmental wellbeing), as well as indicate how often they engage in six different pro-environmental behaviors (e.g., turning lights off when leaving the room). Additionally, data on the respondents' gender, age, political orientation, and self-control was collected. Our results suggest a positive correlation between self-control and environmental wellbeing and a weaker, but still positive, correlation between self-control and some pro-environmental behaviors. Additionally, respondents who identified themselves as politically left had lower environmental wellbeing, while men had higher environmental wellbeing, but behaved less environmentally friendly. Thus, our results suggest that political orientation was a better predictor of sound environmental behavior than subjective self-control was.

Effective Teaching of Teachers, Self-Regulation, and Study Habits among Students: Structural Equation Model on Learning of Filipino

Aims: To investigate the causal relationship between and among effective teaching, self-regulation, and study habits.
 Study Design: Causal Relationship Analysis.
 Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at CARAGA Region, Philippines during the school year 2022-2023.
 Methodology: A four-dimentional and validated survey questionnaire was used in gathering the data. Four hundred seventeen grade 12 Senior High School students were randomly chosen to be the respondents of the study.
 Results: Both perceptions of effective instruction and student study habits scored extremely well. Additionally, there were high levels of self-control, study habits, and Filipino proficiency. Furthermore, it was discovered that learning Filipino was significantly correlated with good teaching, self-control, and study habits. Model 5 produced the model that fit the data the best.
 Conclusion: The very high levels of perceived effectiveness in teaching and studying suggest that teachers fully model efficient learning and self-control in helping students learn Filipino. Similar to how strong study habits and serious Filipino learning indicate pupils who follow good study habits. Furthermore, the relationship between efficient instruction, self-control, and study habits demonstrates that these factors should be taken into account by teachers when instructing Filipino. The findings of this research demonstrate that learning Filipino is comparable to learning any other language.

Self-control, peers, and adolescent substance use: an international analysis

Background Adolescent substance use continues to be a global concern. Research has shown that two consistent predictors of this behavior are self-control and peer substance use. The objective of this study was to determine if these two variables interact to affect the frequency of substance use among young people. Methods The analysis utilized three years of data from the Second International Self-Report Delinquency study (2005-2007) (ISRD-2), which gathered information from youth, ages 12-17, residing in 30 nations (n = 72,206). Illicit substance use included cannabis, ecstasy, stimulants, and other substances. A zero-inflated negative binomial model that adjusts for selection effects was estimated to predict the frequency of substance use. Results The results showed that adolescents with low self-control who associated with substance using peers tended to be the most frequent substance users. Yet, youth with higher levels of selfcontrol were likely to report no or low frequency use regardless of the number of their friends who used illicit substances. Conclusions Self-control affects substance use among adolescents and can attenuate the influence of peer substance use. Research using longitudinal data is needed to disentangle changes in self-control, peer substance use, and one’s own substance use.

Coping with Stress During the COVID-19 Outbreak: The Contribution of Self-Control Skills and Religiosity in Arab Israeli-Palestinian Students in Israel.

The reported high rates of deaths and negative psychological outcomes of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic have led to an increased empirical interest in examining the contributing factors of coping during the COVID-19 pandemic. Adolescents living in Arab societies have unique challenges that may increase the likelihood of exhibiting symptoms of stress during this crisis. However, this population has been understudied in this context. The current research aims to elucidate factors that may contribute to Arab Israeli-Palestinian students' coping abilities during the COVID-19 pandemic by investigating the relationship between coping with stress during the COVID-19 outbreak and both self-control and religiosity. To our knowledge, the present study is the first to investigate the relationship of coping with stress during the COVID-19 outbreak with self-control skills and religiosity among Arab Israeli-Palestinian college students in Israel (n = 465). Correlational analyses and stepwise multiple regression models were used to examine these relationships. The stepwise multiple regression model demonstrated that (1) higher levels of self-control (β = .19, p < .01) and religiosity (β = .16, p < .01) predicted higher levels of adaptive, problem-focused coping, and (2) higher levels of self-control (β = -.21, p < .01) and religiosity (β = -.17, p < .01) predicted lower levels of maladaptive, emotion-focused coping. Thus, the current research demonstrates the importance of these variables in countering stress resulting from the COVID-19 outbreak in non-Western societies. These findings are consistent with previous literature that has addressed the impact of self-control and religiosity in improving coping behaviours in Western societies.

A Study on the Effect of Self-Control on Indulgent Food Choice: Focusing on the Moderating Role of the Need to Belong in a Social Dining Context

The purpose of this study is to investigate (1) the effect of self-control on indulgent food choice and (2) the moderating role of the need to belong on the relationship between self-control and indulgent food choice in a social dining context. The results reveal that people with high self-control are more likely to choose healthy (vs. unhealthy) food when eating alone (Study1). However, high self-control people with high (vs. low) need to belong are, ironically, more likely to make indulgent food choices in a social dining context where their dining companion has chosen unhealthy food. In contrast, people with low self-control are more likely to choose unhealthy food regardless of their need to belong (Study 2). The influence of the need to belong on indulgent choices in a social dining context is stronger for those with high levels of self-control. This research provides theoretical and managerial implications for consumers and marketers to develop strategies to promote healthier food choices.

Digital Screen Time to the Learners' Well-Being and Behavioral Change

Digital screen time exposure and its relation to well-being and behavioral change is one of the many concerns that learners, parents, and educational institutions are facing nowadays.The research sought to investigate status of digital screen time exposure and management; and the extent of its relationship to the learners? well-being in terms of self-esteem and socialization, as well as behavioral change with regards to short-temperedness and enthusiasm in learning. Descriptive method using purposive sampling technique was utilized in this study to gather the necessary data from one hundred and one (101) intermediate learners from United Evangelical Church School in Santa Cruz, Laguna.Learners exposure to television, handheld devices, and laptop/computer is at modest manner. Learners also have high level of self-control and moderate extent in terms of parental guidance. With regards with socialization and self-esteem, learners are at moderate extent. In addition, learners? short-temperedness is at moderate extent while enthusiasm in learning is at great extent. Findings indicated that learners' digital screen time mostly bears significant relationship to their well-being and behavioral change, but not to some extent. Therefore, the null hypotheses stating "digital screen time exposure has no significant relationship on the learners? well-being and behavioral change" and "digital screen time management has no significant relationship on the learners? well-being and behavioral change" are both partially rejected.The study concluded that digital screen time exposure and management shows partial significant relationship to the learners? well-being and behavioral change. Therefore, the following recommendations were formulated: Parents should consider checking the browser?s history of their children's gadgets; Learners must also be aware of the bad effects of too much exposure to gadgets. On the other hand, parents should reinforce proper guidance for the learners; Teachers must play crucial role in building their learners' self-esteem by motivating them. Activities online or face to face that can also promote socialization is highly recommended to be utilized; Parents and teachers should monitor the learners' behavioral patterns and make them feel that their emotions are valid; Educational institutions should strictly follow the given recommendations of professionals and expert with regards to the learners' digital screen time limit. In addition, private schools conducting online class should strictly adhered to DepEd Memorandum DM-CI-2020-00162. Educational institutions should also offer parents' orientation to help them assist their children with their digital screen time and to develop better screen time management. Future researchers must include other relevant variables to give more depth to this topic.

How Self Control and Situational Pressure Influence the Tendency to Receive Gratification: An Experimental Study

This study aimed to produce empirical evidence on tendency differences to accept gratuities between individuals with a high level of self-control and a low level of self-control, the conditions are the presence or absence of situational pressure. The method used is an experiment with a 2x2 factorial design. A total of 136 officers and staff in the Directorate General of State Bali region become research participants. The data were processed with statistical parametric, two-way ANOVA. The results showed that individuals with high levels of self-control have a lower tendency to accept gratuities than participants with lower levels of self-control. However, this study did not obtain empirical evidence indicating situational pressures experienced by the individual can affect the tendency to accept gratuities. Interaction hypothesis testing showed that the interaction between the individual levels of self-control and situational pressures experienced affects the tendency to accept gratuities.

코로나19로 인한 심리적 요인이 외식소비에 미치는 영향: 자제력, 지루함, 코로나19 위험 지각도를 중심으로

The COVID-19 pandemic represents a global crisis affecting nearly all countries and every aspect of human life. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of psychological factors against the COVID-19 pandemic on consumers’ dining out behaviors. In total, 683 cases were surveyed and analysed using structural equation modeling.<BR> The conclusions of this research is that dine out consumers with high levels of self-control showed a tendency to experience low levels of boredom, indicating a reverse correlation between the two psychological factors. That is, to the contrary, those with low levels of self-control displayed high levels of boredom. This also leads to the conclusion that those with higher levels of self-control, their perception under the COVID-19 Own Risk Appraisal Scale was lower. The results showed that high levels of boredom was linked to a lower positive intention to dine-out during the COVID-19.

Differences in self-control, self-efficacy and depressive symptoms between active and inactive middle-aged and older adults after 1 year of COVID restrictions

Objectives The psychological impact of the prolonged lockdown measures in the UK as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic is unclear. Our aim was to determine if there are significant differences in self-control, self-efficacy, depressive symptoms and leisure motivation between UK older adults with differing levels of physical activity, and which of these variables can be used to predict activity level after 1 year of lockdown restrictions, Methods 521 adults aged 50–92 years completed an online survey consisting of several validated measures relating to physical activity, self-control, self-efficacy, depressive symptoms, and leisure motivation. Participant’s responses were grouped into active (≥150minutes activity per week) and inactive (<150minutes activity per week). Data was analysed using ANOVA, Pearson’s Correlation and Multiple Regression (forward stepwise). Results We found significant differences in self-efficacy, self-control, and depressive symptoms between physically active vs inactive subjects. High levels of self-control and self-efficacy were associated with higher levels of activity and fewer depressive symptoms. Self-control, amotivation, depressive symptoms and self-efficacy were predictors of physical activity level. Conclusion Psychological variables including self-control, self-efficacy, depressive symptoms and amotivation can be used to predict physical activity levels in UK middle-aged and older adults following 1 year of Covid restrictions.

The Relationship Between Physical Exercise and Mobile Phone Addiction Tendency of University Students in China: A Moderated Mediation Model.

This study aims to explore the relationship between physical exercise (PE), self-control (SC), physical exercise atmosphere (PEA), and mobile phone addiction tendency (MPAT) among Chinese university students. Through the quota sampling, 1,433 students complied with the requirements were surveyed from 10 universities in China. PE, SC, PEA, and MPAT were assessed using standard scales. For data analysis, common method deviation test, mean number, standard deviation, correlation analysis and structural equation model analysis were carried out in turn. The results showed PE and MPAT were negatively related (r = –0.158, p < 0.05); PE significantly positively predicted SC (β = 0.082, t = 3.748, p < 0.01), and SC significantly negatively predicted MPAT (β = –0.743, t = –19.929, p < 0.01). Bootstrap method was used to test the mediating effect of SC. The results showed that 95% confidence interval did not include 0. After adding the mediating variable of SC, PE did not significantly negatively predict the tendency of MPAT (β = –0.027, t = –1.257, p > 0.05). The interaction item PEA and SC could significantly positively predict the tendency of MPAT (β = 0.165, t = 2.545, p < 0.05). In the high PEA group, SC had a significant negative predictive effect on the tendency of MPAT (β = –0.665, t = –14.408, p < 0.01); However, in the low PEA group, the negative predictive effect was stronger (β = –0.834, t = –15.015, p < 0.01). The present study shows that PE significantly negatively predicted the tendency of MPAT, and SC played a complete mediating role in the relationship between PE and MPAT; The second half of the indirect effect of PE and MPAT was regulated by the PEA. The PEA will enhance the influence of SC on MPAT, but the high PEA will increase the level of MPAT of individuals at a very high level of SC.