High-velocity Air Fuel Coatings Research Articles

High-velocity oxy-fuel and high-velocity air fuel sprayed WC-Co-Cr coatings on solution-treated 21-4N steel for slurry and corrosion resistance

This study aims to fabricate WC-Co-Cr coatings on the solution-treated 21-4N steel utilizing high-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) and high-velocity air fuel (HVAF) techniques. The microstructure, hardness, surface quality, porosity, slurry erosion, and corrosion resistance of HVOF and HVAF coatings on solution-treated 21-4N steel were investigated and compared. The HVAF sprayed WC-Co-Cr coating exhibited dense structure, more hardness (1582 HV), greater fracture toughness (5.69 MPa m1/2), less decarburization, and lower porosity (0.97 %) as compared to HVOF sprayed coating. Further, slurry jet erosion tests and electrochemical corrosion tests provide a comprehensive evaluation of the coating’s performance under erosive and corrosive conditions. Eventually, the conclusive results of the study affirm the exceptional performance of the high-velocity air fuel sprayed WC-Co-Cr coating, demonstrating its superiority in both erosion and corrosion resistance compared to the high-velocity oxygen fuel sprayed coating.

Thermally sprayed multi-principal element Cr40Co40Ni20 coatings – Oxidation upon coatings' build-up and electrochemical corrosion

Thermally sprayed Cr40Co40Ni20 coatings were produced by high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) and high-velocity air fuel (HVAF). The phases formed upon coatings' build-up were sensitive to oxidation at high temperatures, leading to the formation of various oxygen-rich compounds such as chromia and spinel. Chromia tended to be formed at the inner layer, in contact with the metal, and the spinel forming the outer layer. HVAF coatings suffered much less oxidation compared to the HVOF coatings. The pronounced Cr-depletion at the metallic and oxygen compounds caused by formation of spinel and oxide upon deposition of coatings created regions susceptible to readily corrode in chloride-rich electrolyte.

High-velocity air fuel coatings for steel for erosion-resistant applications

High-velocity air fuel (HVAF) coating processes have advantages over conventional high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) processes, resulting in coatings with superior properties. The present review first provides a concise overview of HVAF coatings, highlighting their advantages over HVOF coatings. Then, the fundamentals of solid particle, slurry, and cavitation erosion are briefly introduced. Finally, the performance of HVAF coatings for erosion-resistant applications is discussed in detail. The emerging research consistently reports HVAF-coatings having higher erosion resistance than HVOF-coatings, which is attributed to their elevated hardness and density and improved microstructural features that inhibit the surface damages caused by erosion. The dominant wear mechanisms are mainly functions of particle impact angle. For instance, the removal of the binder phase at high impact angles causes the accumulation of plastic strain on hard particles (e.g., WC particles) in the matrix, forming micro-cracks between the hard particles and the matrix, eventually decreasing the erosion resistance of HVAF coatings. The binder phase of HVAF-coatings significantly affects erosion resistance, primarily due to their inherent mechanical properties and bearing capacity of hard particles. Optimizing spraying parameters to tailor the microstructural characteristics of these coatings appears to be the key to enhancing their erosion resistance. The relationship between microstructural features and erosion mechanisms needs to be clarified to process coatings with tailored microstructural features for erosion-resistant applications.

Investigating load-dependent wear behavior and degradation mechanisms in Cr3C2–NiCr coatings deposited by HVAF and HVOF

Wear resistant coatings that comply with non-toxic environment goals are highly desirable. Cr3C2–NiCr is a promising alternative to the toxic, ‘Co’- containing WC–Co coatings to mitigate wear. The purpose of this study was to examine the suitability of Cr3C2–NiCr coatings for automotive brake disc application by systematically investigating their dry sliding wear behavior at different test conditions. Therefore, High Velocity Air Fuel (HVAF) and High Velocity Oxy Fuel (HVOF) were employed to deposit Cr3C2–NiCr coatings. The powder feedstock and as-deposited Cr3C2–NiCr coatings were characterized for their microstructure and phase composition using SEM and XRD. Mechanical properties (hardness, fracture toughness), porosity and surface topography of the as-deposited coatings were evaluated. The coatings were subjected to sliding wear tests at different normal loads (5 N, 10 N and 15 N) using alumina ball as the counter surface. Coefficient of friction (CoF) evolution of HVAF and HVOF deposited coatings, along with their wear performance, was obtained for different normal load conditions. The wear performance ranking of HVAF and HVOF processed coatings was influenced by the test conditions, with HVAF coatings demonstrating better wear resistance than HVOF coatings at harsh test conditions and the HVOF coatings performing better under mild wear test conditions. Detailed post-wear analysis of worn coatings, the alumina ball counter-body and the resulting debris was performed to reveal the degradation mechanisms at different test conditions. Findings from this work provide new insights into the desirable microstructural features to mitigate wear, which can be further exploited to deposit wear-resistant coatings.

Study of the corrosion and cavitation resistance of HVOF and HVAF FeCrMnSiNi and FeCrMnSiB coatings

Cavitation and corrosion on hydrodynamic components and systems reduces the operational efficiency. The use of wear resistant coatings has been studied as a solution to the problem of corrosion and cavitation in industrial environments. The high velocity oxy-fuel process (HVOF) can produce coatings with high density and bond strength. High velocity air-fuel (HVAF) is an alternative process, which can deposit coatings with higher velocity and lower temperatures, compared to the HVOF process, resulting in lower oxide content. This paper analyzes the HVOF and HVAF processes to deposit FeCrMnSiNi and FeCrMnSiB coatings, comparing their cavitation and corrosion resistance. HVAF coatings presented lower porosity and oxide levels, as well as higher hardness values. The HVAF process presented better cavitation and corrosion resistance, due to lower porosity and oxide contents of the coatings. The amount of oxides and pores in the coatings was crucial in their corrosive behavior, by facilitating the penetration of the chloride ions through the pores, leading to a higher corrosion rate and pitting formation.

Chlorine-induced high-temperature corrosion and erosion-corrosion of HVAF and HVOF-sprayed amorphous Fe-based coatings

Chlorine-induced high-temperature corrosion and erosion-corrosion behavior of amorphous Fe-based coatings sprayed by high velocity air-fuel (HVAF) and high velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) techniques were investigated. The coated specimens were first exposed to isothermal high-temperature corrosion at 600 °C in ambient air with and without KCl. The exposed specimens were then subjected to alumina erodent. The as-sprayed HVAF coating showed a more compact and uniform microstructure with a higher hardness leading to higher corrosion and erosion-corrosion resistance. After erosion, all the coatings similarly exhibited a combined brittle/ductile damage to surface oxide scale that previously formed in the corrosive environment. The corrosion and erosion-corrosion behavior of the coatings primarily relied on the uniformity of coatings' microstructure and distribution of alloying elements to form the protective oxide scale in the corrosive environment, which can resist against erodent in the erosive media.

Influence of powder feed rate on corrosion and wear properties of Fe-based HVAF coatings

Large-area applications, such as Yankee cylinders for paper machines, are often exposed to corrosion/wear, and therefore require adequate surface protection. The goal of this study is to develop a cost-efficient coating system that offers comparable protection to the industrially established Fe-based coating systems produced by wire arc spraying (WAS). Cost efficiency is to be achieved by using an economically priced, novel Fe-based feedstock material, the high velocity air-fuel (HVAF) process as well as a coating thickness reduction. In this study, the feedstock material FeCrB/WC-Co with the grain size fraction -32 +11 µm was investigated. Two coating thicknesses dct ≈ 120 µm and dct ≈ 240 µm and two different powder feed rates p = 40 g/min and p = 200 g/min were considered. An industrially established WAS FeCrBSiMnC coating system was used as reference. To examine the microstructure, cross sections of the coatings were prepared and investigated with a light microscope. Electro chemical polarization and pin-on-disc- (POD) tests were performed to investigate the corrosion and wear properties of these coating systems. Furthermore, XRD measurements were used to investigate the phase composition. The results show that a dense and crack-free coating can be produced with a powder feed rate of p = 200 g/min and that the powder feed rate p has a significant influence on the corrosion behaviour.

Microstructural characteristics and corrosion behavior of HVAF- and HVOF-sprayed Fe-based coatings

Fe-based coatings have been shown to be viable alternatives to the more expensive and less environmentally friendly Co- and Ni-based coatings. In the present work, the microstructural characteristics and corrosion behavior of Fe-based coatings deposited by high-velocity air fuel (HVAF) and high-velocity oxy fuel (HVOF) processes were comparatively investigated. Different sets of powder composition and particle size were used to decrease the porosity and increase the corrosion resistance of the coatings. The corrosion behavior of the coatings was studied using electrochemical techniques, including open-circuit potential (OCP) and polarization tests in 3.5wt% NaCl at 25°C. Techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS), and X-ray diffractometry (XRD) were used to characterize the as-sprayed and corroded coatings. The results revealed that the HVAF coatings had lower porosity and oxide content than the HVOF coatings. The polarization tests confirmed that the HVAF coatings sprayed with finer particle size (−36+20μm) have higher polarization resistance (Rp) than the coatings produced by powders (−53+20μm). Based on SEM analysis, it was observed that corrosion initiated and grew through the surface defects of the coating and propagated through inter-lamellar boundaries.

A Comparative Study on Ni-Based Coatings Prepared by HVAF, HVOF, and APS Methods for Corrosion Protection Applications

Selection of the thermal spray process is the most important step toward a proper coating solution for a given application as important coating characteristics such as adhesion and microstructure are highly dependent on it. In the present work, a process-microstructure-properties-performance correlation study was performed in order to figure out the main characteristics and corrosion performance of the coatings produced by different thermal spray techniques such as high-velocity air fuel (HVAF), high-velocity oxy fuel (HVOF), and atmospheric plasma spraying (APS). Previously optimized HVOF and APS process parameters were used to deposit Ni, NiCr, and NiAl coatings and compare with HVAF-sprayed coatings with randomly selected process parameters. As the HVAF process presented the best coating characteristics and corrosion behavior, few process parameters such as feed rate and standoff distance (SoD) were investigated to systematically optimize the HVAF coatings in terms of low porosity and high corrosion resistance. The Ni and NiAl coatings with lower porosity and better corrosion behavior were obtained at an average SoD of 300 mm and feed rate of 150 g/min. The NiCr coating sprayed at a SoD of 250 mm and feed rate of 75 g/min showed the highest corrosion resistance among all investigated samples.

HVOF and HVAF Coatings of Agglomerated Tungsten Carbide-Cobalt Powders for Water Droplet Erosion Application

Water droplet erosion (WDE) is a phenomenon caused by impingement of water droplets of several hundred microns to a few millimeters diameter at velocities of hundreds of meters per second on the edges and surfaces of the parts used in such services. The solution to this problem is sought especially for the moving compressor blades in gas turbines and those operating at the low-pressure end of steam turbines. Thermal-sprayed tungsten carbide-based coatings have been the focus of many studies and are industrially accepted for a multitude of wear and erosion resistance applications. In the present work, the microstructure, phase analysis and mechanical properties (micro-hardness and fracture toughness) of WC-Co coatings are studied in relation with their influence on the WDE resistance of such coatings. The coatings are deposited by high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) and high-velocity air fuel (HVAF) processes. The agglomerated tungsten carbide-cobalt powders were in either sintered or non-sintered conditions. The WDE tests were performed using 0.4 mm water droplets at 300 m/s impact velocity. The study shows promising results for this cermet as WDE-resistant coating when the coating can reach its optimum quality using the right thermal spray process and parameters.

Effect of Spray Particle Velocity on Cavitation Erosion Resistance Characteristics of HVOF and HVAF Processed 86WC-10Co4Cr Hydro Turbine Coatings

The hydro plants utilizing silt-laden water for power generation suffer from severe metal wastage due to particle-induced erosion and cavitation. High-velocity oxy-fuel process (HVOF)-based coatings is widely applied to improve the erosion life. The process parameters such as particle velocity, size, powder feed rate, temperature, affect their mechanical properties. The high-velocity air fuel (HVAF) technology, with higher particle velocities and lower spray temperatures, gives dense and substantially nonoxidized coating. In the present study, the cavitation resistance of 86WC-10Co4Cr-type HVOF coating processed at 680 m/s spray particle velocity was compared with HVAF coatings made at 895, 960, and 1010 m/s. The properties such as porosity, hardness, indentation toughness, and cavitation resistance were investigated. The surface damage morphology has been analyzed in SEM. The cohesion between different layers has been examined qualitatively through scratch depth measurements across the cross section. The HVAF coatings have shown a lower porosity, higher hardness, and superior cavitation resistance. Delamination, extensive cracking of the matrix interface, and detachment of the WC grains were observed in HVOF coating. The rate of metal loss is low in HVAF coatings implying that process parameters play a vital role in achieving improved cavitation resistance.

Effect of spraying parameters on the microstructural and corrosion properties of HVAF-sprayed Fe–Cr–Ni–B–C coatings

Thermally sprayed Fe-based coatings have been extensively studied as future solution in order to replace more expensive, harmful and environmentally dangerous Ni- and WC-based coatings for several industrial applications where high corrosion and wear resistance are required. The aim of the present study is to investigate the effect of spraying parameters on the microstructure and the corrosion resistance of Fe-based coatings manufactured with the High Velocity Air Fuel (HVAF) thermal spray process. Six sets of thermal spraying parameters have been chosen and their effect on the overall quality of coatings was investigated. All HVAF coatings showed comparably dense microstructure with near-zero oxidation, proving the high quality of the deposition process. However, higher anti-corrosion and mechanical properties were achieved by increasing the spraying air pressure and decreasing the particle feeding rate without altering the thickness and the overall deposition rate. Powder feeding rate was reported to have a remarkable effect on microstructure and corrosion properties. Coatings with beneficial compressive residual stresses were successfully obtained by increasing air pressure during spraying which resulted in improved microstructural and corrosion properties.

Properties of intermetallic Ni–Al coatings deposited by high-velocity air–fuel spraying

The formation of intermetallic Ni–Al coatings by high-velocity air–fuel (HVAF) spraying is considered. The energy states of particles are calculated to determine the optimum grain-size composition of NiAl and Ni 3 Al powders. The properties of HVAF coatings from commercial PN85Yu15 and PTYu5N powders and test NAS powder deposited on steel, copper, and aluminum substrates are analyzed. The phase composition and structure of the coatings are provided. The properties of the coatings (porosity less than 1.5%, adhesion with steel substrate 44–57 MPa) are as good as those of the coatings produced with other thermal-spraying methods. The microstructure of the coatings is mainly formed by solid particles and partially by fine molten particles.

Structure and corrosion behavior of 316L stainless steel coatings formed by HVAF spraying with and without sealing

316L stainless steel (SUS316L) coatings were sprayed on carbon steel substrate by a high-velocity air fuel (HVAF) process. Powder feed rate and particle size were varied systematically to investigate their effects on microstructure, oxide content and adhesion strength of the coatings. When the powder feed rate and particle size increased, the oxide content in the coatings decreased from 7 to 3%, while the adhesion strength decreased from 34 to 17 MPa. The corrosion resistance of the coatings was evaluated for sealed and unsealed coating conditions by salt spray test for up to 500 h. A large amount of corrosion products appeared on the unsealed coatings after 20 h, whereas no corrosion products were observed on the sealed coatings sprayed with the powder of the largest particle size, even after 500 h. Moreover, the above characteristics of the HVAF coatings were compared with those of a SUS316L coating sprayed by a high-velocity oxy-fuel process.

Long-Term Carbide Development in High-Velocity Oxygen Fuel/High-Velocity Air Fuel Cr<SUB>3</SUB>C<SUB>2</SUB>-NiCr Coatings Heat Treated at 900°C

During the deposition of Cr3C2-NiCr coatings, compositional degradation occurs, primarily through the dissolution of the carbide phase into the matrix. Exposure at an elevated temperature leads to transformations in the compositional distribution and microstructure. While these have been investigated in short-term trials, no systematic investigations of the long-term microstructural development have been presented for high-velocity sprayed coatings. In this work, high-velocity air fuel (HVAF) and high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) coatings were treated at 900 °C for up to 60 days. Rapid refinement of the supersaturated matrix phase occurred, with the degree of matrix phase alloying continuing to decrease over the following 20 to 40 days. Carbide nucleation in the HVAF coatings occurred preferentially on the retained carbide grains, while that in the HVOF coatings developed in the regions of greatest carbide dissolution. This difference resulted in a variation in carbide morphologies. Preferential horizontal growth was evident in both coatings over the first 20 to 30 days of exposure, beyond which spheroidization of the microstructure occurred. After 30 days, the carbide morphology of both coatings was comparable, tending toward an expansive structure of coalesced carbide grains. The development of the carbide phase played a significant role in the microhardness variation of these coatings with time.

Study of the Influence of Microstructural Properties on the Sliding-Wear Behavior of HVOF and HVAF Sprayed WC-Cermet Coatings

The microstructural properties of WC-Co-Cr and WC-Co coatings deposited by high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) and high-velocity air fuel (HVAF) processes were investigated. The tribological behavior of the coatings was studied by means of pin-on-disk tests. Microcracking of the HVOF sprayed WC-Co coatings did not allow preparation of suitable disks for wear tests. The wear rates of the remaining coatings were determined, and wear tracks on the coatings and counterbodies were investigated by SEM. The HVAF sprayed coatings showed greater sliding-wear resistance compared to the HVOF coatings. The prime wear mechanism in the WC-Co HVAF coatings was adhesive wear. The cobalt matrix is lubricious, resulting in very low wear rates and low debris generation. The main wear mechanisms in the WC-Co-Cr coatings were adhesive and abrasive wear. Adhesive wear results in coating material dislodgments (i.e., “pullouts”) that become trapped in the contact zone and act as a third-body abrasive. Particle pullout from the coating significantly increases the wear rate of the coated specimen. The HVAF/WC-Co-Cr coatings exhibited better resistance to particle pullout, resulting in a considerably lower wear rate than the HVOF/WC-Co-Cr coatings.

Comparative Study of WC-Cermet Coatings Sprayed via the HVOF and the HVAF Process

The high velocity air fuel (HVAF) system is a high-velocity combustion process that uses compressed air and kerosene for combustion. Two WC-cermet powders were sprayed by the HVAF and the high-velocity oxyfuel (HVOF) processes, using an AeroSpray gun (Browning Thermal Systems Inc., Enfield, New Hampshire) and a CDS-100 gun (Sulzer Plasma Technik, Wohlen, Switzerland) respectively. Several techniques, including x-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and energy dispersive spectroscopy, were used to characterize the microstructures and phase distribution of the powders and coatings. In addition, mechanical properties such as hardness and wear resistance (pin-on-disk) were investigated. A substantial amount of W2C was found in the HVOF coatings, as well as a high concentration of tungsten in the binder phase, indicating that oxidation and dissolution processes change the composition and microstructure from powder to coating during spraying. This was in contrast to the HVAF coatings in which composition and microstructure were unchanged from that of the powder. Additionally, the wear resistance of the HVAF coatings was superior to that of the HVOF coatings.