High-value Trees Research Articles

Changing climate risks for high-value tree fruit production across the United States

Abstract Climate change poses growing risks to global agriculture including perennial tree fruit such as apples that hold important nutritional, cultural, and economic value. This study quantifies historical trends in climate metrics affecting apple growth, production, and quality, which remain understudied. Utilizing the high-resolution gridMET dataset, we analyzed trends (1979-2022) in several key metrics across the U.S. – cold degree days, chill portions, last day of spring frost, growing degree days (GDD), extreme heat days (daily maximum temperature >34°C), and warm nights (daily minimum temperatures >15°C). We found significant trends across large parts of the U.S. in all metrics, with the spatial patterns consistent with pronounced warming across the western states in summer and winter. Yakima County, WA, Kent County, MI, Wayne County, NY—leading apple-producers—showed significant decreasing trends in cold degree days and increasing trends in GDD and warm fall nights. Yakima county, with over 48,870 acres of apple orchards, showed significant changes in five of the six metrics - earlier last day of spring frost, fewer cold degree days, increasing GDD over the overall growth period, and more extreme heat days and warm nights. These trends could negatively affect apple production by reducing the dormancy period, altering bloom timing, increasing sunburn risk, and diminishing apple appearance and quality. Large parts of the U.S. experience detrimental trends in multiple metrics simultaneously that indicate the potential for compounding negative impacts on the production and quality of apples and other tree fruit, emphasizing the need for developing and adopting adaptation strategies.

Developing and applying a virus-induced gene silencing system for functional genomics in walnut (Juglans regia L.) mediated by tobacco rattle virus.

Walnut (Juglans regia L.) is a high-value tree species planted worldwide, but the incomplete less developed genetic transformation system limits its gene function analysis. In this study, virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) mediated by tobacco rattle virus (TRV) technology was applied to walnut seedlings to degrade the transcript of target gene. Different infiltration methods were used to explore the effects of infection mode, Agrobacterium cell density, silencing fragment length, and walnut cultivars. The results showed that spray infiltration of seedlings resulted in a photobleaching phenotype of the whole plant. Leaf injection was a more effective way of infiltration. The optimal combination was the Agrobacterium cell density at OD600 = 1.1 with target fragment = 255 bp for the treatment of walnut early-fruiting cultivar 'Xiangling.' This combination can reach up to 48 % of gene silencing efficiency. Based on this optimized VIGS system, silencing a walnut chlorophyll synthesis-related gene, JrPOR (Protochlorophyllide reductase), to further validate the system's effect. The results showed that the expression of JrPOR was significantly repressed, and the chlorophyll level of the silenced plants was significantly decreased compared with the control. The above results indicate that the walnut TRV-VIGS system has been successfully established and can be used for reverse genetic studies, providing an option for verifying gene function in walnut.

Early Thinning: A Promising Tool to Prevent Fistulina hepatica Heart Rot in Castanea sativa Coppice Stands

Castanea sativa is a high-value tree species whose stands have faced significant threats over the past century. The occurrence of one such threat, Chestnut Red Stain—a heartwood discoloration caused by the fungus Fistulina hepatica—has recently increased. This disease devalues the timber by up to 70% due to the rejection of stained wood by the industry. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of three management strategies on the occurrence of F. hepatica in chestnut coppice stands. Additionally, the co-occurrence of F. hepatica and Cryphonectria parasitica, both highly prevalent in the study area, was assessed. In 2013, three different silvicultural treatments were applied to five plots. Seven years later, the stand characteristics were measured, and the incidence of F. hepatica was evaluated using molecular tools. Data modeling revealed that the quadratic mean diameter before the interventions was related to the incidence of F. hepatica. Our results suggest that the thinning at earlier stand stages may be more critical than the type or intensity of the thinning in reducing the incidence of the fungus in the mid-term. This finding provides forest managers with new guidance to improve silvicultural treatments and prevent F. hepatica damage.

Assessment of nutritional contents of different parts of moringa plant from selected districts of Oromia, Ethiopia

Moringa plants are among high-value trees and belong to the Moringaceae family, consisting of 13 species and highly distributed in Africa and southern Asia. It is multi-purpose tree with medicinal, nutritional, industrial and socio-economic values. Preliminary information indicates that the human dietary usage of the edible parts of these species is limited. Assessment of the nutritional quality of different moringa parts was not well documented in Oromia. Hence, the aim of this activity is to assess the nutritional qualities of different parts of moringa collected from different districts of Oromia. Sample collection was done from Bako from West Showa, Bishoftu from East Showa, Dalo Mena and Goro from Bale Zone, of Oromia representing mid and low land agro-ecologies of the region. Three to four sampling PAs were used from each district. Different parts of Moringa, namely, leaf, pod, bark, seed and flower were collected from the four districts at least in triplicate. The collected samples were made to dry at room temperature, milled with coffee miller, and passed through a 1 mm standard sieve. The prepared samples were analyzed for proximate and mineral compositions using standard methodologies. The result obtained indicated that leaf is rich in nutrients Ca, Na, Mn and Zn. Moringa flower is rich in nutrients like Zn and Mn, and second in K composition next to pod. The pod is also rich in K and Zn, while the fat and CP contents are high in the seed part of moringa. Generally, Higher % CP, K and P were found from the Bishoftu collection, while Mg, Ca and K were higher for the collection from DM. Bark is poor in protein content compared to other parts of the plant. However, Ca, Mg and Zn are double the optimum composition of plant material. Finally, it is possible to use different moringa parts for food fortification, where determination for antioxidant and nutritional composition analysis is mandatory, as well as future research directions. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 14(1): 62-69, June 2024

Host Plant Modulated Physio-Biochemical Process Enhances Adaptive Response of Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) under Salinity Stress.

Salinity is one of the most significant abiotic stress that affects the growth and development of high-value tree species, including sandalwood, which can also be managed effectively on saline soils with the help of suitable host species. Therefore, the current investigation was conducted to understand the physiological processes and antioxidant mechanisms in sandalwood along the different salinity gradients to explore the host species that could support sandalwood growth in salt-affected agro-ecosystems. Sandalwood seedlings were grown with ten diverse host species with saline water irrigation gradients (ECiw~3, 6, and 9 dS m-1) and control (ECiw~0.82 dS m-1). Experimental findings indicate a decline in the chlorophyll content (13-33%), relative water content (3-23%), photosynthetic (27-61%) and transpiration rate (23-66%), water and osmotic potential (up to 137%), and ion dynamics (up to 61%) with increasing salinity levels. Conversely, the carotenoid content (23-43%), antioxidant activity (up to 285%), and membrane injury (82-205%) were enhanced with increasing salinity stress. Specifically, among the hosts, Dalbergia sissoo and Melia dubia showed a minimum reduction in chlorophyll content, relative water content, and plant water relation and gas exchange parameters of sandalwood plants. Surprisingly, most of the host tree species maintained K+/Na+ of sandalwood up to moderate water salinity of ECiw~6 dS m-1; however, a further increase in water salinity decreased the K+/Na+ ratio of sandalwood by many-fold. Salinity stress also enhanced the antioxidative enzyme activity, although the maximum increase was noted with host plants M. dubia, followed by D. sissoo and Azadirachta indica. Overall, the investigation concluded that sandalwood with the host D. sissoo can be successfully grown in nurseries using saline irrigation water and, with the host M. dubia, it can be grown using good quality irrigation water.

Conserving dipterocarps biodiversity in remnant forests of small islands in Batam Island, Indonesia

Abstract. Susilowati A, Wijaya K, Mawazin, Rachmat HH, Lismayati Y, Kurniawan H, Ginting IM. 2024. Conserving dipterocarps biodiversity in remnant forests of small islands in Batam Island, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 25: 726-733. The protected forest of Sei Harapan is a remnant forest in Batam Island, the Riau Islands Province, Indonesia and one of the keruing (Dipterocarpus spp.) habitats on Sumatra Island. Illegal logging for its wood and land degradation have significantly reduced the keruing population. The objective of this research was to assess the diversity of keruing species and floristic composition in the Sei Harapan Protected Forest. This study employed a vegetation analysis method using purposive sampling with plotted lines and the transect placement based on the keruing position. The research revealed more than 70 species, three of which were Dipterocarpaceae species, including Vatica pauciflora, Shorea curtisii, and Dipterocarpus rigidus. D. rigidus had the highest IVI at the sapling (52.80%) and pole (67.22%). However, D. rigidus ranked 13th in the seedling stage, with an IVI of 5.79%. The diversity index was high at the seedling stage (3.73), moderate at sapling (2.25), pole (2.76), and tree stage (2.89). The evenness index was high at all growth stages, with values of 0.94 (seedling), 0.98 (sapling), 0.91 (pole), and 0.81 (tree). The richness index at the seedling, pole, and tree stage were categorized as high, with values of 10.40, 5.39, and 7.09, respectively, whereas the richness index at the sapling stage was moderate at 3.51. The study finding pointed out that the existence of Sei Harapan remnant forest requires to be preserved considering its essential function for preserving high economic value tree species, especially Dipterocarp. The comprehensive conservation effort for dipterocarps species, is crucial considering the research findings revealed a problem of continuity of species regeneration and the emergence of new pioneer species as the consequence of anthropogenic disturbance.

The Interacting Influence of Fire and Tree Characteristics on Douglas-Fir Beetle Host-Tree Selection Five Years Post-Fire

Fire injury stresses Douglas-fir trees (Pseudotsuga menziesii) that survive a wildfire event, allowing subsequent Douglas-fir beetle (Dendroctonus pseudotsugae) infection to kill trees that may have otherwise survived. This study aimed to determine how fire injury, stand, and tree characteristics drive Douglas-fir beetle host tree selection five years post-fire. We paired 28 adjacent beetle-infected and uninfected stands (infected N = 14) and 140 Douglas-fir trees (infected N = 70) within the 416 Fire burn area in Southwest Colorado. We found no statistically significant differences between infected and uninfected stand characteristics. Individual tree height, DBH, and bark char severity index were significantly higher in infected versus uninfected trees. We created a regression decision tree model to determine the influence of fire injury and tree characteristics on the probability of infection. Trees with a height ≥ 27 m, bark char height < 2.3 m, and DBH < 80 cm had the greatest probability of attack (100%). Trees with a height < 27 m, bark char severity index < 5.5, and DBH < 49 cm had the lowest probability of attack (3.7%). Understanding the influence of fire on Douglas-fir beetle host selection allows land managers to model potential epidemic outbreaks and guide proactive management actions that may reduce beetle outbreak severity or preserve high-value trees not killed by fire.

Effects of environmental drivers and irrigation on yields of macadamia orchards along an altitudinal gradient in South Africa

Macadamia is a high value tree nut crop experiencing a global rise in demand. South Africa is the worldwide largest producer and macadamia orchards are rapidly expanding in the country. However, yields are highly variable across years and have been declining in recent years. Therefore, to sustainably increase the productivity and resilience of macadamia orchards to climate change, the impact of environmental factors on the trees’ vegetative and reproductive cycles needs to be better understood. To this end, the extent to which orchard characteristics, climatic and soil factors, as well as irrigation amounts drive macadamia yields in Levubu (Limpopo Province, South Africa) along an altitudinal gradient (600–950 m a.s.l.), was quantified by using mixed-effects models. Climatic variables were selected separately for the different macadamia phenological stages, in which they potentially affected yields. Furthermore, the effects of different yield determining factors were compared between irrigated and rainfed orchards.A pronounced interannual variability of macadamia yields was found (from 1.2 to 4.0 tons dry nut-in-shell ha−1), although a triennial bearing pattern was observed. Higher yields were found at elevations >700 m a.s.l. and in micro-sprinkler irrigated orchards. Orchard characteristics and environmental variables jointly explained 49% of yield variability. Cultivar, presence of irrigation, tree age and planting density were found to affect yield, while no significant effect was found for soil variables (i.e. soil texture, bulk density, pH and C:N ratio). High temperatures and low global radiation during the nut development stages, alongside poor rainfall amounts in the dry season, were the climatic factors more severely affecting yields. In particular, low irradiance was the main yield limiting factor in irrigated orchards, while extremely high temperatures and poor rainy seasons in rainfed orchards. Increased irrigation amounts, although beneficial, were not fully compensating the impact of climatic factors on productivity. Our findings suggest that irrigation alone cannot counteract adverse climatic effects on macadamia yields. To sustainably increase macadamia productivity and resilience to climate change, abiotic stress impacts will have to be reduced through a combination of genetic improvement and better orchard management practices.

Close-to-Nature Forestry Measures in East Polissia Region of Ukraine

The article discusses close-to-nature forestry measures for the natural regeneration of pure and mixed pine forests. It is shown that successful natural regeneration of high value tree species takes place after uniformly gradual logging and progressive strip felling as final cutting operations in pure pine forests in fresh or moist oak-pine forest stands on sandy soil, resulting in the development of natural young pine forests with mixed composition. The article analyzes the state of natural regeneration after the first cycle of transformation felling operations in pure even-aged pine stands aimed at converting them into mixed pine forests of natural origin. Systems of close-to-nature silvicultural measures for restoration, development, improvement and regeneration of forest stands in the process of continuous cover forestry have been elaborated.

Application of lignocellulosic composite (Taiwan incense-cedar) for digital light processing (DLP) in 3D printing

ABSTRACT Adding wood fiber to the 3D printing material can make the 3D-printed product have the characteristics of natural dyeing and material. Because wood fiber is mostly waste and cheap, it can reduce material cost. For environmental sustainability, it is a very promising filling material. Currently, there are 3D printing consumables using wood fiber on the market, most of which are made by drawing wires with polylactic acid (PLA). Due to the low accuracy and yield of frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) printing using filaments, it cannot be extended to mass production industrial use, and natural pellets cause the problem of nozzle clogging. In contrast, if fiber is mixed with polyurethane acrylate (PUA), it can be printed by DLP and cured through the photocuring reaction. This method has no clogging problem and has high printing accuracy, enabling industrialized mass production that requires high yield and accuracy. Therefore, in this study, Taiwan incense-cedar (high economic and ecological value tree species) was applied to commercial PUA materials for DLP 3D printing. Mix wood fiber with different ratios and commercial PUA, conduct printing and performance tests, and then compare the mechanical properties and finished product effects with commercial PLA printed products that add wood fiber.

Spatially explicit modeling of disease surveillance in mixed oak-hardwood forests based on machine-learning algorithms

Incidences of disease, dieback, decline or mortality, some of which induced or enhanced by climate change, threaten the sustainability of forest stands in many ecosystems. Spatially explicit prediction of disease onset remains challenging, however, due to the involvement of several causative agents. In this paper, we developed a generic framework based on machine-learning algorithms and spatial analyses for landscape-level prediction of oak disease outbreaks caused by the charcoal fungus Biscogniauxia mediterranea in a mixed-oak forest of Mediterranean climate. For prediction, we used a set of fifteen causative factors as a cross-function of soil, site and stand-related predictors. A total of 80 sample plots, including 1134 affected trees, were surveyed and used for the modeling process at the 5600-ha landscape level of the southern Zagros, Iran, where the disease occurs in roughly 25% of forest lands. Ten machine learning algorithms were explored and the performance of each algorithm to predict oak disease outbreak was evaluated. The modeling framework used maximum entropy to remove the least influential variables and build the status-quo management scenario to which the results of the prediction models were compared. Results showed that the random forests algorithm (AUC = 0.96: Precision = 0.71: Accuracy = 0.90: F-Measure = 0.70) achieved significantly better results than the status-quo management (Precision = 0.13: Accuracy = 0.67: F-Measure = 0.12) and any other algorithm. Soil chemical properties (NPK, organic carbon and EC) and landform predictors (slope, distance to roads, and TWI) were major forecasters of oak disease outbreak identified by the random forest algorithm. Geostatistical analysis enabled the creation of a map that identified sites at higher risk of infestation, allowing epidemiologists and forest managers to find sites likely to be infested. Consequently, financial resources can be allocated and management practices such as sanitation felling treatments applied across large forest landscapes to minimize the risk of spread and severity to uninfested high-value trees on nearby or adjacent land zones that are in the early stage of epidemics.

Tree-level almond yield estimation from high resolution aerial imagery with convolutional neural network.

Estimating and understanding the yield variability within an individual field is critical for precision agriculture resource management of high value tree crops. Recent advancements in sensor technologies and machine learning make it possible to monitor orchards at very high spatial resolution and estimate yield at individual tree level. This study evaluates the potential of utilizing deep learning methods to predict tree-level almond yield with multi-spectral imagery. We focused on an almond orchard with the 'Independence' cultivar in California, where individual tree harvesting and yield monitoring was conducted for ~2,000 trees and summer aerial imagery at 30cm was acquired for four spectral bands in 2021. We developed a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) model with a spatial attention module to take the multi-spectral reflectance imagery directly for almond fresh weight estimation at the tree level. The deep learning model was shown to predict the tree level yield very well, with a R2 of 0.96 (±0.002) and Normalized Root Mean Square Error (NRMSE) of 6.6% (±0.2%), based on 5-fold cross validation. The CNN estimation captured well the patterns of yield variation between orchard rows, along the transects, and from tree to tree, when compared to the harvest data. The reflectance at the red edge band was found to play the most important role in the CNN yield estimation. This study demonstrates the significant improvement of deep learning over traditional linear regression and machine learning methods for accurate and robust tree level yield estimation, highlighting the potential for data-driven site-specific resource management to ensure agriculture sustainability.

Cold tolerance strategy and cryoprotectants of Megabruchidius dorsalis in different temperature and time stresses.

The honey locusts (genus Gleditsia) are a genus of high-value trees in Asia. Seed beetle, Megabruchidius dorsalis (Fåhraeus) (Col.: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae), is a Gleditsia oligophagous pest that causes severe yield reduction. To understand the cold tolerance of M. dorsalis adults, this study investigated its cold tolerance strategy and the influence of low temperatures on its physiology and biochemistry. The low-temperature treatments were divided into three groups: long-term temperature acclimation (Group 1; 15°C, or 20°C, or 25°C, or 28°C [control check, CK] for 10days), short-term low-temperature exposure (Group 2; 0°C or 4°C for 2h), and long-term low-temperature induction (Group 3; 0°C or 4°C for 1, 3, or 5d). The supercooling point (SCP; temperature at which spontaneous nucleation and ice lattice growth begin), freezing point (FP; temperature at which insect fluids freeze), low lethal temperature (LLT; temperature at which all individuals are killed), water, lipid, glycerol, and total sugars contents were measured under different temperature stresses. The results showed that M. dorsalis adults were a freeze-avoidant species. The SCP and LLT at 28°C were -10.62°C and -19.48°C, respectively. The SCP and FP of long-term temperature acclimation (15°C, or 20°C, or 25°C) were significantly lower than that of the control group (28°C). The water content of the long-term low temperature induction (0°C) group was significantly lower than that of the control group. The lipid and glycerol content in the acclimated group at 20°C and 25°C were significantly higher than in the control group. M. dorsalis adults may maintain their biofluids in a supercooled state via cryoprotectant accumulation and cryoprotective dehydration to prevent ice nucleation. This study provides a theoretical basis for future research on overwintering and potential distribution and related prediction of M. dorsalis adults.

Dendrology and Lightning Protection

The protection of trees against lightning—especially historically significant ones, high-value trees, and tall trees within 10 ft of a structure—began around the beginning of the 20th century. Arborists derived their methods and standards of protection from the electrical engineer’s solutions used to protect tall structures. The fundamentals for this protection originated more than 300 years ago in Philadelphia, as described in Benjamin Franklin’s pamphlet “Experiments and Observations on Electricity, Made at Philadelphia in America” <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref1" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">[1]</xref> . Franklin founded the American Philosophical Society (the oldest learned society) in 1743 with contemporary scholars including his close friend and consult in all things related to trees and shrubs, John Bartram, the famous botanist. Bartram collected and studied trees and shrubs from all of the original 13 states and created the first botanical garden in Philadelphia. In 1795, he discovered the <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Franklinia alatamaha</i> tree, which he named in honor of his close family friend Benjamin Franklin <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref2" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">[2]</xref> .

Syringa oblata genome provides new insights into molecular mechanism of flower color differences among individuals and biosynthesis of its flower volatiles.

Syringa oblata is a high ornamental value tree owing to its elegant colors, unique aromas and wide adaptability, however, studies on the molecular mechanism underlying the formation of its ornamental traits are still lacking. Here, we presented a chromosome-scale genome assembly of S. oblata and the final genome size was 1.11 Gb with a contig N50 of 4.75 Mb, anchored on 23 chromosomes and was a better reference for S. oblata transcriptome assembly. Further by integrating transcriptomic and metabolic data, it was concluded that F3H, F3'H, 4CL and PAL, especially the F3'H, were important candidates involved in the formation of floral color differences among S. oblata individuals. Genome-wide identification and analysis revealed that the TPS-b subfamily was the most abundant subfamily of TPS family in S. oblata, which together with the CYP76 family genes determined the formation of the major floral volatiles of S. oblata. Overall, our results provide an important reference for mechanistic studies on the main ornamental traits and molecular breeding in S. oblata.

Safeguarding sandalwood: A review of current and emerging tools to support sustainable and legal forestry

Societal Impact StatementSandalwood and other high value tree species are under significant threat from illegal harvest. Illegal logging is an increasing problem contributing to deforestation, biodiversity loss, human rights abuses and funding transnational crime. Successful prosecution of illegal logging is hindered by a lack of methods to provide evidence of the origin of timber. New analytical techniques have been developed to trace timber back to its source. These methods, together with the establishment of sustainable sources of forest resources, can help protect vulnerable species by providing evidence to prosecute illegal harvest and ensure that commercially available forest products come from sustainable sources.SummarySandalwood is highly valued for its fragrant oil and has a long history of cultural and economic importance in many regions of the world. Historical overharvest and poor management have depleted natural populations of sandalwood, which are slow to regenerate. The increasing establishment of plantation sandalwood creates an alternative resource for the sandalwood industry while potentially relieving harvesting pressure on natural stands. Due to the high demand for sandalwood, remaining wild populations are still under threat from illegal logging and methods to identify the source of harvested sandalwood are needed. Laws and regulations aimed at preventing illegal harvest and possession of sandalwood have been put in place but cannot be enforced without the forensic tools to independently verify claimed origin or product quality. The high value of sandalwood combined with the difficulties in enforcing illegal logging laws makes these species particularly vulnerable to poaching. There is an immediate need to develop tools that can identify illegally sourced and adulterated sandalwood products. This paper reviews the current and developing scientific tools that can help identify and control illegal activity in sandalwood supply chains and provides recommendations for future research. Topics include isotope and DNA analysis for tracing illegally harvested sandalwood, chemical profiling for quality control of sandalwood oils, network and policy development to establish a framework for future regulation of the sandalwood trade.

First report of Taxus media branch blight caused by Neopestalotiopsis clavispora in China.

Taxus media Rehder is a high-value tree species and can be used for landscape afforestation and medicinal purposes considering its beautiful shape and secondary metabolite paclitaxel. In May 2019, branch blight of T. media was observed in plantations in Hangzhou, Zhejiang province, China. The lesions were brown, necrotic and sunken, and the branches were withering. Plants from five plantations were surveyed, and the disease incidence was 60%. Necrotic tissues from 5 plans from each plantation were cut into small pieces (5×5 mm), surface disinfected with 75% alcohol for 30 s and 2% sodium hypochlorite solution for 2-3 min, washed twice with sterile water, then dried on sterile filter paper. Branch pieces were aseptically transferred to potato dextrose agar (PDA) plates and incubated at 25℃ in the dark for 3 days. Five purified fungal cultures were obtained and the representative isolate (LA-01) that grew slightly more vigorously under the same condition was selected for morphological characterization and DNA sequence comparison. The colony was initially white and cottony, with circular growth, undulated edge, wavy surface and pale beige on the back. The conidia were long spindle-shaped, straight or slightly curved, 21-27 × 6-8 μm (n=50) in overall shape. They contained 5 cells with those at the apex and base hyaline. The second and third cells from the apex were darker (brown) than the fourth cell from the apex (pale brown). Two or three (most frequently observed) hyaline appendages were apparent at the apex, 16-31 μm in length. Morphological characteristics of the obtained isolate were consistent with those in the genus of Neopestalotiopsis (Solart et al. 2018). DNA of LA-01 was extracted from fresh mycelia using Minibest Universal Genomic DNA Extraction Kit (Takara, Toyoto, Japan) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The partial regions from the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), β-tubulin gene (TUB2), and translation elongation factor subunit 1-a gene (TEF1) were amplified and sequenced using universal primer pairs ITS5/ITS4, BT2A/BT2B, and EF1-526F/EF1-1567R (Maharachchikumbura et al. 2012), respectively. The resulting nucleotide sequences were individually subjected to BLAST searches in GenBank. The nucleotide sequences of ITS (MZ148633, 554 bp), TUB2 (MZ286974, 473 bp ), TEF1 (MZ286975, 1030 bp) of the isolate LA-01 showed 99.64% similarity to ITS sequence (MW512858.1), 99.35% similarity to TUB2 sequence (MH423961.1), 98.18% similarity to TEF1 sequence (KU096881.1). The multi-locus phylogenetic tree was constructed based on the combined ITS-TUB2-TEF1 sequences using MEGA 7 using the neighbor-joining method, indicating that LA-01 represents Neopestalotiopsis clavispora. Inoculation was done on branches of ten T. media plants in the field to verify the pathogenicity of LA-01. Two healthy branches of each plant were surface sterilized with 75% ethanol allowed to dry, and two small wounds on each branch were obtained by puncturing with a sterilized needle. One wound was inoculated with 5-mm-diameter PDA discs excised from 7-day-old cultures, and wrapped with parafilm; the other inoculated with sterile PDA plugs as control, and wrapped with parafilm. Disease symptoms developed on all N. clavispora-inoculated wounds 3 days after inoculation. The yellow brown lesions became apparent 20 days later, whereas the control wounds remained asymptomatic. The fungus N. clavispora was reisolated from the diseased lesions using the same methods above, fulfilling Koch's postulates. Previously, the species was reported to cause leaf spot disease on another Taxus tree species T. chinensis in China (Wang et al. 2019). This is the first report of T. media branch blight caused by N. clavispora worldwide. Special attention should be paid to the damage it may cause to T. media producers, and precautionary monitoring on T. media population will be a significant part of the conservation efforts in China.

24-Epibrassinolide Promotes Fatty Acid Accumulation and the Expression of Related Genes in Styrax tonkinensis Seeds.

Styrax tonkinensis, whose seeds are rich in unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs), is a high oil value tree species, and the seed oil has perfect biodiesel properties. Therefore, the elucidation of the effect of 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) on fatty acid (FA) concentration and the expression of FA biosynthesis-related genes is critical for deeply studying the seed oil in S. tonkinensis. In this study, we aimed to investigate the changing trend of FA concentration and composition and identify candidate genes involved in FA biosynthesis under EBL treatment using transcriptome sequencing and GC-MS. The results showed that 5 μmol/L of EBL (EBL5) boosted the accumulation of FA and had the hugest effect on FA concentration at 70 days after flowering (DAF). A total of 20 FAs were identified; among them, palmitic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and linolenic acid were the main components. In total, 117,904 unigenes were detected, and the average length was 1120 bp. Among them, 1205 unigenes were assigned to ‘lipid translations and metabolism’ in COG categories, while 290 unigenes were assigned to ‘biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acid’ in KEGG categories. Twelve important genes related to FA biosynthesis were identified, and their expression levels were confirmed by quantitative real-time PCR. KAR, KASIII, and accA, encoding FA biosynthesis-related enzymes, all expressed the highest at 70 DAF, which was coincident with a rapid rise in FA concentration during seed development. FAD2 and FATB conduced to UFA and saturated fatty acids (SFA) accumulation, respectively. EBL5 induced the expression of FA biosynthesis-related genes. The concentration of FA was increased after EBL5 application, and EBL5 also enhanced the enzyme activity by promoting the expression of genes related to FA biosynthesis. Our research could provide a reference for understanding the FA biosynthesis of S. tonkinensis seeds at physiological and molecular levels.

Impermanence and failure: the legacy of conservation-based payments in Sumatra, Indonesia

Projects that pay communities or individuals to conserve natural areas rarely continue indefinitely. When payments cease, the behaviors they motivate can change. Previous research on conservation-based payments recognizes the impermanence of conservation success, but it does not consider the legacy of payments that failed to effect change. This research assesses impermanence and failure by investigating the legacy of village-level conservation payments made through one of the largest Integrated Conservation and Development Projects in Indonesia. The Kerinci-Seblat Integrated Conservation and Development Project aimed to conserve forest area and promote local development through voluntary conservation agreements (VCAs) that provided payments for pro-conservation pledges and activities from 2000 through 2003. Project documentation and previous research find that payments failed to incentivize additional forest conservation, producing nonsignificant differences in forest-cover change during the project period. To examine the legacy of these payments in the post-project period, this research uses matched difference-in-differences and triple differences models to analyze forest cover change in villages (n = 263) from 2000 through 2016 as well as matched binary logistic regression models to assess enduring differences in household (n = 1303) livelihood strategies within VCA villages in 2016. The analysis finds that VCA villages contained significantly more forest loss than the most similar non-VCA villages outside the national park, and greater payments predict increased forest loss in the post-project period. In addition, farming high-value tree crops and cultivating private land were the most important attributes for modeling VCA affiliation among randomly selected households. These results demonstrate that, after payments ceased, project failures increased in severity over time.Those who design and implement conservation-based payments bear great responsibility to ensure their projects are informed by local voice, align with community preferences, and provide sufficient benefits, lest they result in a conservation legacy of increased failure.

Effect of Organic Amendments in Soil on Physiological and Biochemical Attributes of Vachellia nilotica and Dalbergia sissoo under Saline Stress.

Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H. Hurther & Mabb. and Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. are two of the most important multipurpose agroforestry tree species of the Indian sub-continent, but their growth in saline soils is greatly reduced. Recently, organic amendments have showed the potential to increase plant growth in salt-affected soils; however, the influence of using these amendments for growing the above-mentioned tree species under saline conditions is not yet quantified. Therefore, an experiment was devised to analyze the interactive effects of organic amendments in saline soils on the growth of V. nilotica and D. sissoo. Under controlled conditions, a pot experiment was conducted in sandy loam saline soils (EC = 20.5 dSm−1). Organic amendments from four diverse sources: farmyard manure (FYM), poultry manure (PM), slurry (SL), and farmyard manure biochar (FYMB) were employed in this study. At the harvesting time, data regarding morphological, physiological, ionic, and biochemical parameters were obtained. The current study results indicated that both tree species reacted differently, but positively, to diverse applied amendments. The maximum increment in total above-ground biomass, total below-ground biomass, and shoot length for V. nilotica (163.8%, 116.3%, and 68.2%, respectively) was observed in FYM amended soils, while the maximum increment for D. sissoo (128%, 86%, and 107%, respectively) was observed in FYMB amended soils, as compared to control. Minimum plant growth of both species was observed in untreated soils (saline soils). Likewise, the maximum potassium ion and minimum sodium ion concentrations were present in the root and shoots of plants (both species) treated with FYMB. The use of organic amendments resulted in decreased concentrations of malondialdehyde and hydrogen peroxide, and increased concentrations of antioxidant enzymes such as SOD, POD, and CAT. Moreover, higher photosynthetic rates and stomatal conductance were observed in the plants grown in amended soils. The findings of this study can be used to include the above-mentioned high-value tree species for future afforestation programs under saline conditions.