High-speed Schlieren Photography Research Articles

Effects of herringbone riblets on shock-wave/turbulent boundary-layer interactions

In the experiment reported in this paper, a spanwise array of herringbone riblets strips is applied upstream of the interaction region between an impinging shockwave and a turbulent boundary layer developing along a flat plate boundary layer at a freestream Mach number of 1.85. High-speed schlieren photography, surface oil flow visualization and PSP are used to examine the effect of herringbone riblets on the characteristics of the shockwave-boundary layer interactions. It shows that despite that the height of the riblets is less than 2 % of the local thickness of the undisturbed boundary layer, a profound modification to the shockwave-boundary layer interaction zone is observed, and the overall size of the separation bubble is decreased. The observed control effects are attributed to the large-scale secondary flow structures produced by the directional riblets. To the best knowledge of the author, this is the first study evaluating the control effect of herringbone riblets on shock wave and turbulent boundary layer interactions in supersonic flow using the experimental method.

Experimental investigation on a novel external-mixing prefilming atomizer for advanced aircraft engines

As a crucial component of aircraft engine combustors, the external-mixing prefilming atomizer exhibits significant advantages in enhancing combustion efficiency and reducing pollutant emissions. However, the intricate relationship between spray characteristics, droplet breakup mechanisms, flow fields, and geometric parameters of the external-mixing prefilming atomizer remains poorly understood. This paper presents a novel external-mixing prefilming atomizer, aiming to address this knowledge gap. Additionally, particle image velocimetry (PIV), high-speed Schlieren photography, and particle image analysis (PIA) measuring systems were employed to gain insights into the spray characteristics and droplet breakup mechanism of the external-mixing prefilming atomizer under various swirl flow fields. The obtained results reveal the formation of two distinct regions, namely a low-density area and a high-density area. Notably, the number of droplets in the low-density area, located within 0–2 cm from the central axis, is significantly lower compared to the high-density area situated further away from the central axis. The breakup of droplets in the low-density region is primarily attributed to the inner swirl airflow, while the outer swirl airflow induces droplet breakup in the high-density region. As the Reynolds number of the incoming flow increases, the air-liquid ratio (ALR) and Weber number also increase, thereby enhancing the fuel breakup effect. The Schlieren results reveal a two-stage spray development process. The initial stage is characterized by the dominant momentum of the dense spray, with the spray tip penetration (STP) exhibiting a relatively slow increase. The aerodynamic force of airflow plays a crucial role in governing the breakup and transport of droplets, leading to a linear variation of STP over time. As the swirl number increases, there is an enhanced momentum exchange between droplets and airflow, resulting in accelerated spray penetration and droplet breakup.

Propagation Characteristics of Explosion Wave and Explosion Gas in Blast-Hole

In order to explore the propagation characteristics of explosion wave and gas in blast-hole, design a model to simulate blast-hole charge in the laboratory, adopted a high-speed schlieren experiment system used to study the evolution characteristics of explosion wave field under two kinds of charge structures. The results showed similar explosion wave velocities for the two cartridges, the explosion wave was reflected when it reaches the hole wall, and the reflected wave velocity was lower than an incident wave. The explosion gas tends to cluster and spread in a cutting direction, resulting in intensified destruction in that direction. The explosion wave first emerges in the direction of the slits, and then moves towards the blast-hole walls, which indicates that the explosion energy can be accumulated in the slit direction and cause directional destruction of the medium. To study this process in detail, establish numerical model for the propagation of explosive in the hole. The results indicated that the detonation products first come out in the direction of the slits and then go around towards other areas in a distribution that is consistent with the observations by high-speed schlieren photography.

Experimental observation of the combustion modes based on a novel multistage pre-chamber turbulent jet ignition (TJI) system

Transient jet flame propagation under newly proposed multistage pre-chambers is studied in a constant-volume combustion chamber with a high-speed schlieren photography system. Various combustion behaviors, including the flame tip velocity, jet emergence timing, projected flame area, pressure, and heat release rate, are investigated under different pre-chamber structures. The present work will provide constructive insight into the design, manufacture, and application of turbulent jet ignition engines. It is shown that the pre-chamber structure determines the main chamber flame development by influencing the flame development inside the pre-chamber. As the flame is accelerated by an obstacle in the pre-chamber, faster exit velocity of hot jet and intense turbulence are observed in the main chamber. In addition, the overall development of the jet flame in the main chamber can be separated into two stages, the former of which is dominated by jet flows, while the latter stage is controlled by the chemical reaction under different excess air coefficients, presenting turbulent combustion characteristics. In this work, six ignition modes under ultra-lean conditions are observed, including (1) jet ignition occurrence on the entire jet surface due to the sufficiently high reactivity; (2) local ignition in the middle of the hot jet; (3) local multipoint ignition and ignition at the jet tip; (4) ignition induced by delayed burning at the jet root; (5) jet tip ignition with backward flame propagation; and (6) global extinction. For the effect of initial pressure, it is found that under stoichiometric conditions, the initial pressure has a minor influence on flame tip propagation, while it significantly influences pressure evolution and heat release rate. However, the increase in initial pressure can improve flame propagation and pressure evolution under lean conditions. Under near-extinction conditions, the ignition mode could be switched from unstable ignition to stable ignition. A numerical simulation is also conducted to reveal the flame development inside the pre-chamber under different pre-chamber structures.

Initial response and combustion behavior of microscale Al/PTFE energetic material by nanosecond laser ignition

Al/PTFE reactive material has potential applications in defense and military due to its good thermodynamic properties and strong stability. To clarify its microscopic reaction process, the initial response and combustion behavior from microsecond up to several milliseconds are fully exhibited via laser-induced plasma spectroscopy and high-speed schlieren photographs while varying the ignition energy. Totally different plasma chemistry and combustion behavior of microscale Al/PTFE (mole ratio of 4:3) from those of pure Al are recorded. The fading of AlO and CN emissions and enhancement of C2 emission from the composite plasma with increase of laser energy prove that Al-F exothermic combination dominate the initial response since the decomposed gases of PTFE keep most Al away from air to be oxidized. The acceleration of laser-induced shockwave by a local high temperature reaction zone at the expanding plume front along the direction of laser beam is illustrated. As the plasma quenched and transformed to combustion at later stage, an ellipsoidal flame generally occurs above the surface for PTFE composite due to the upward move of Al vapor with PTFE decomposition gas while the combustion from pure Al exhibits a horizontal expansion along the surface. Self-sustained combustion of micro-Al/PTFE lasts around 1 ms is observed at extreme high energy of 1100 mJ. Inside flame plume, the transmission of decomposition matter and energy between different flame parts are clarified. Finally, a qualitative reaction model is built to successfully describe the response and combustion behavior after nanosecond laser ignition in detail. This study provides the support for the application of these insensitive reactive materials in laser ignition.

Experimental and numerical study of flame acceleration and DDT in a channel with continuous obstacles

Flame acceleration and deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT) in obstructed channels is an important subject of research for propulsion and explosion safety. Experiment and numerical simulation of DDT in a stoichiometric hydrogen–oxygen mixture in a channel equipped with continuous triangular obstacles were conducted in this work. In the experiment, high-speed schlieren photography was used to record the evolution of reaction front and strong pressure waves. A pressure transducer was used to record the pressure build-up. In the numerical simulation, a high-order numerical method was used to solve the fully compressible reactive Navier–Stokes equations coupled with a calibrated chemical-diffusive model. The calculations are in good agreement with experimental observations. The result shows that the triangular obstacles can significantly promote flame acceleration and provide conditions for the occurrence of DDT. In the early stages of flame acceleration, the main cause for flame roll-up and distortion is the effect of vortices generated in the gaps between neighbouring triangular obstacles. The scales and velocities of vortices are determined by the positive feedback process between combustion-generated flow and flame propagation. The continuous triangular obstacles create an intricate flow field and increase the complexity of shock reflections. This complicated flow leads to local detonation initiation through different mechanisms, i.e. flame-flame collisions and flame-shock interactions. Successive local detonation ignitions and failures are produced in the obstacle gaps due to the continuous layout of the triangular obstacles. It was found that successive local detonation ignitions are critical for the eventual success of DDT formation because the shock waves generated by them continually strengthen the leading shock. The detonation failure or survival due to diffraction depends on the height of the narrow space (h*) between the bulk flame and obstacle vertex, and can be quantitatively characterised by the ratio of the space height to detonation cell size (), h*/.

Experimental investigation on the ignition limits of a kerosene-fueled cavity in model scramjet combustor

The ignition limits of liquid kerosene injected upstream of a cavity flameholder using a spark plug are investigated in a model scramjet combustor with the isolator entrance Mach number of 2.52, the total pressure of 1.6 MPa, and stagnation temperature of 1486 K. The effects of injection pressure and mixing distance on ignition are studied. Flame dynamics and the evolution of the flow field during the ignition process are acquired through high-speed photography and Schlieren photography. For near-field injection, successful ignition of kerosene can only be achieved when the injection pressure is extremely low or in a higher injection pressure range. The ignition is failed due to the fuel-rich local equivalence ratio in the cavity recirculation zone when the injection pressure is in the middle of injection pressure range. For far-field injection, the ignition trend is totally opposite compared with near-field injection. The ratio of the fuel that the cavity can react completely to that consumed by the mainstream is extremely low due to the minimal mass exchange rate between the cavity and the mainstream. The local equivalence ratio in cavity is the controlling factor determining whether successful ignition could be achieved. Only local ignition with low combustion efficiency is achieved in the present single-cavity combustor. The flame could not spread to the mainstream due to the lower turbulence level weakening the interaction of combustion products in the recirculation zone with unburned reactants in the supersonic flow.

High-amplitude effect on single-mode Richtmyer–Meshkov instability of a light–heavy interface

The high-amplitude effect on the Richtmyer–Meshkov instability flow characteristics is investigated by examining the interaction of a planar shock with a single-mode air–SF6 interface both experimentally and numerically. In our experiments, the soap–film technique is adopted to generate well-defined initial interfaces, and the shocked flows are recorded by high-speed schlieren photography. Numerical simulations are performed to highlight the effects of wave patterns on interface movements at the early stage. For cases with high initial amplitudes, a cavity is formed at each spike tip. The cavity formation is ascribed to the vorticity deposition on the slip lines resulting from the Mach reflection of the transmitted shock wave. A series of transverse shocks introduce the secondary compression effect, which changes the interface morphology and causes the failure of the impulsive model in predicting the amplitude linear growth rate. Those modified linear models considering a reduction factor are also found incapable of accurately predicting the linear growth rate. Moreover, a non-monotone dependence of linear growth rate on initial amplitude is observed. Although similar observations were reported in previous numerical simulations, they have never been reported in experiments before. According to the pressure and velocity distributions, the effects of shock–shock interaction on the movements of the interface peak and trough are demonstrated, and the mechanism of non-monotone dependence is discussed. The validity of the existing nonlinear model proposed for predicting the development of a single-mode interface is further tested. It is shown that the applicability of the model worsens as the initial amplitude or dimensionless time increases.

Visualization of ignition modes in methane-based mixture induced by shock wave focusing

In this study, different ignition modes and detonation initiation due to shock wave focusing are observed by combining a transient overpressure recording technique and a high-speed schlieren photography system. In plane reflection, only weak and strong ignition modes are observed; while there are three ignition modes in the 90-degree and 60-degree wedges by introducing shock wave focusing: peak local ignition mode (PLIM), boundary ignition mode (BIM), and strong ignition mode (SIM). In PLIM, the flame is generated at the apex of the wedge-shaped reflector, but the propagation speed is slow, the flame area concentrates on the apex of the reflector and maintains for a long time. In BIM, the flame is firstly generated at the apex of the wedge and quickly propagates along the tube wall; later the flame propagates slowly from the tube wall to the central unburned area. In SIM, oblique shock waves are generated when the shock waves are reflected from the wedged walls, the interaction of oblique shocks inducing the initiation of detonation. In addition, the incident shock velocity (Vi) range corresponding to different ignition modes for different shock wave focusing types is given. The lower velocity limit of SIM for planar, 90-degree, and 60-degree wedge reflectors is 980 m/s, 915 m/s, and 880 m/s, respectively. Therefore, it is more conducive to initiate the detonation wave in the 60-degree wedge with a lower speed shock wave. The instantaneous maximum pressure (Pmax) and maximum pressure after ignition (Pign) of the three reflectors are investigated corresponding to each ignition mode. It is found that Pign and Pmax can be used to determine SIM. This study provides new insight into different ignition modes in wedge reflectors due to shock focusing; the results are beneficial to understanding the physics of shock wave focusing and its mechanism of shock focusing-induced detonation.

Experimental and numerical study on the laminar flame characteristics for PODE3 and PODE3/iso-octane blends under elevated and sub-ambient initial pressures

• The laminar burning speeds for PODE 3 under different initial pressures are tested. • The laminar burning speeds for PODE 3 / iso -octane blends are investigated. • The accuracy of mechanism for PODE 3 and PRF/PODE n is validated. • The Markstein length and laminar flame instability are analyzed in detail. Polyoxymethylene dimethyl ether (PODE n ) is a promising alternative fuel for diesel due to its high oxygen contents (>40%) and high cetane number, thereby improving the thermal efficiency and reducing the pollutant emissions caused by the internal combustion engine. This study investigated the laminar burning speeds and Markstein length for PODE 3 and PODE 3 / iso -octane blends at wide equivalence ratios (0.7–1.6) and initial temperature of 408 K under elevated and sub-ambient initial pressures (0.5–4 bar) in a cylindrical constant-volume combustion vessel with high-speed Schlieren photography method combined with the nonlinear extrapolation model. The numerical simulation was also carried out to validate the accuracy of the mechanisms of PODE 3 and primary reference fuel (PRF)/PODE n blends and analyze the reaction sensitivities and the mole fraction profiles of key species. In addition, flame instability was discussed experimentally and theoretically. The results show that the laminar burning speed for PODE 3 decreases with the initial pressure, and the laminar burning speed for PODE 3 / iso -octane basically accords with the linear relationship to the PODE 3 volume fractions. The findings indicate that the kinetic effect has a dominant impact on the laminar burning speed for PODE 3 when compared with the thermal effect. The results also reveal that the Markstein length is negative only at an equivalence ratio between 1.5 and 1.6 under P = 2 bar, indicating that PODE 3 has more enhanced flame stability. Furthermore, the flame instability decreases with the increase of PODE 3 volume fractions, increases with the increase of initial pressure, and increases with the increase of the equivalence ratio. The differences between experimental results and theoretical results including the Markstein length, the critical radius and the critical Peclet number might be explained by the stretch rate results.

Influence of pressure and dilution gas on the explosion behavior of methane-oxygen mixtures

This study investigates the influence of initial pressure (P0) and dilution gas (N2, CO2, He, or Ar) on the explosion behavior of CH4-O2 mixtures. Spherical premixed flames in a 20 L spherical vessel are recorded by high-speed schlieren photography. The explosion parameters, explosion duration (τe), maximum explosion pressure (Pmax), maximum explosion pressure change rate ((dP/dt)max), flame speed, burning velocity, and Markstein length, are experimentally investigated at various pressures up to 250 kPa and at room temperature (280 ± 3 K). The experimental results show that Pmax and (dP/dt)max increase linearly with P0. The influence on the explosion intensities, (dP/dt)max, and flame speed, from high to low with the dilution is in the order of CO2, N2, Ar, and He, which indicates that CO2 and N2 more significantly inhibit CH4-O2 explosion. The results suggest that CO2 not only has a strong endothermic ability and reacts with H, but also changes the active free radicals to molecules due to three-element collision. The experimental phenomena are explained and validated by the results from the Chemkin package using two detailed mechanisms, indicating that (dP/dt)max is closely related to the content of H, O, OH, and CH3. The cellular instability is analyzed by the flame thickness and Markstein length, and it becomes more obvious as the flame thickness and Markstein length decrease. The buoyancy instability, Rayleigh-Taylor instability, and a series of phenomena due to the dilution of CO2 are analyzed. The maximum explosion pressure and flame speed decrease significantly with the addition of CO2 into CH4-air mixtures, and CO2 affects the generation of flame. The buoyancy instability of CH4-air mixtures with CO2 addition is examined. The experimental results contribute to a deeper understanding of the explosion behavior of CH4-O2 mixtures and the dilution effect of other gases on it.

Flame acceleration and DDT in a channel with fence-type obstacles: Effect of obstacle shape and arrangement

Experiments and numerical simulations were conducted to study the effects of obstacle shape and arrangement on the flame acceleration and deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT) in an obstructed channel filled with a stoichiometric hydrogen–oxygen mixture. Two different shapes and arrangements of fence-type obstacles with the same blockage area were considered: continuous triangular and discrete rectangular obstacles. In the experiments, high-speed schlieren photography was used to record the flame acceleration and DDT process with a blockage ratio of 0.5. In the calculations with the different blockage ratios, a high-order numerical algorithm was used to solve the multidimensional, fully compressible, reactive Navier–Stokes equations coupled to a calibrated single-step chemical-diffusive model. The quantitative agreement between the calculations and experiments allows a detailed analysis of the DDT mechanism and the influence of obstacle shape/arrangement using the numerical results. The results show that the differences in the flame acceleration and distance to DDT between the triangular and rectangular obstacle arrays are closely related to the blockage ratio. For a low blockage ratio (br<0.5), flame accelerates faster and DDT occurs in a shorter time in the channel with the triangular obstacles because the inclined surfaces of the triangular obstacles allow stronger flame-vortex interactions and are more favorable to detonation survival once a detonation is initiated in the gap between obstacles. Nevertheless, for a high blockage ratio (br>0.5), the lateral triangle surfaces become steeper, and the advantages of triangular obstacles for promoting DDT become less effective. In addition, the triangles have a more significant weakening effect on the leading shock, while the rectangular obstacles allow the formation of Mach stems. These effects make the rectangular obstacles with a high blockage ratio more conducive to the occurrence of DDT than their triangular counterparts.

Pressure dependence of combustion instability for premixed syngas/air in a closed channel

Syngas is a promising alternative energy carrier with low carbon and pollutants emissions, which has huge application potential in internal combustion engines and gas turbines. The combustion characteristics of stoichiometric syngas/air mixtures with varied initial pressure (0.5–2.5 atm) and hydrogen content (10%–90% v/v) were examined through experiments in a rectangular closed channel. The flame images and overpressure dynamics were captured by high-speed schlieren photography and pressure sensors. The flame instabilities and the flame-acoustic wave interaction were explored. The results showed that the flame morphology and dynamics were enhanced with increasing hydrogen content and initial pressure. The Darrius-Landau instability has an impact on flame deformation, which was strengthened with growing initial pressure, while the thermo-diffusive instability could be neglected during combustion. At later stages after tulip inversion, the flame-acoustic wave interaction was relatively outstanding inducing wrinkled flame front and cellular structures on the flame surface.

Flame acceleration and deflagration-to-detonation transition in a channel with continuous triangular obstacles: Effect of equivalence ratio

Aiming to gain sufficient data to develop methods capable of predicting and evaluating the danger of potential explosion or even detonation hazards associated with industrial process piping systems, this paper experimentally studied the effect of equivalence ratio on flame acceleration and deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT) of hydrogen-oxygen mixture in a channel equipped with continuous triangular obstacles. This obstruction can simulate the effect of continuous blockage or rough walls in process pipelines. High-speed schlieren photography and OH* chemiluminescence recording were used for visualization. Results show that significant vortex motion accelerates the delayed combustion between obstacles and generates strong jet flow to promote flame acceleration. DDT occurs when the equivalence ratio (Φ) is from 0.25 to 2.5. Minimum detonation initiation time and distance are obtained at Φ = 1.0 and 1.1. The equivalence ratio significantly influences DDT by affecting deflagration speed and shock strength. DDT mechanism for equivalence ratios closer to 1.0 is the survival of local detonation generated by intricate flame-shock interactions. While for equivalence ratios far from 1.0, i.e., extremely lean or rich fuel (Φ = 0.25, 2.0 and 2.5), DDT can be formed due to a combined effect of viscous heating at the boundary layer and preheat caused by shock compression.

Flame Acceleration and DDT in a Channel with Continuous Triangular Obstacles: Effect of Blockage Ratio

ABSTRACT Experiments were conducted in a stoichiometric hydrogen-oxygen mixture at initial pressure of 1 atm to study the flame acceleration and deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT) in a 20 mm high channel equipped with continuous triangular obstacles. Effect of blockage ratio (br) was explored by considering different obstacle heights of 0, 1 mm, 3 mm, 5 mm, and 7 mm, corresponding to br = 0, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, and 0.7, respectively. High-speed schlieren photography and OH* chemiluminescence recording were used to visualize the processes. Results show that blockage ratio has a significant effect on the scales and velocities of the vortices generated in the gaps between neighboring obstacles and consequently on the subsequent flame-vortex interactions. Higher br leads to faster flame acceleration via stronger flame-vortex interactions. The intricate shock-flame interactions cause successive local explosions in the br = 0.3, 0.5, and 0.7 cases, creating conditions for DDT. An eventual choking regime occurs in the br = 0.7 case due to energy losses by continuous diffractions at the obstacle vertices. It was found that the onset of DDT is triggered when the critical height of the unobstructed passage is approximately greater than three detonation cell sizes. The mechanism of DDT changes as the br decreases. One important feature observed is that the br = 0.1 case has the shortest DDT distance. In addition, the final flame speed (~740 m/s, 1.4 times unburned sound speed) before DDT for br = 0.1 is significantly smaller than those (~1300 m/s, 2.4 times unburned sound speed) for br ≥ 0.3. The reason is that the low obstacles retain the characteristics of the obstacle, while mimicking the wall roughness, resulting in both shock compression of unburned gas and viscous heating in the boundary layer ahead of the flame front. The combined effects promote the occurrence of DDT for the case with br = 0.1.

Experimental investigation on the flame stabilization modes of liquid kerosene in a cavity-based scramjet combustor

The flame stabilization modes of liquid kerosene is investigated in a model scramjet combustor with flight condition of Ma 6. The effects of equivalence ratio and cavity configuration schemes on the flame stabilization modes are studied. Flame propagations and the evolution of the flow field from the ignition to the establishment of stable flame in the supersonic flow are acquired through high-speed photography and schlieren photography. Only cavity-recirculation-region stabilized combustion can be obtained in the single-cavity scramjet combustor. The intensity of combustion is weak and is termed as local ignition with low combustion efficiency. In the tandem-cavity scramjet combustor, the flame stabilization mode is largely determined by the total equivalence ratio. The flame could spread into the mainstream and even propagate against the supersonic flow as the equivalence ratio increases. The positive feedback mechanism between combustion and precombustion shock train is responsible for the evolutions of the flame stabilization modes, where the interactions between shock waves and turbulent boundary layer play a key role in the flame propagation process. The large-scale eddies in the shear layer of the upstream cavity shed at the cavity aft wall and could enhance the turbulent levels of the incoming flow of the downstream cavity. Consequently, an intense kerosene flame can be ignited in the tandem-cavity combustor. The flame could not spread to the mainstream in the single-cavity combustor due to the lower turbulence level weakening the interaction of combustion products in the recirculation zone with unburned reactants in the supersonic flow.

Characterizing under-expansion behaviors induced by rapid phase change of flash-boiling jets

Flash-boiling sprays issued from multi-hole gasoline direct injection (GDI) injectors could collapse, which is recently proved to be caused by under-expansion, but very few experimental data are available on this sort of under-expansion. In this study, high-speed microscopic Schlieren photography was used to capture the near-field shock structures in flash-boiling n-hexane jets. The tests were carried out in a constant volume vessel with ambient pressures (Pamb) from 10 to 101 kPa, fuel temperatures (Tfuel) from 30 to 170 ℃, and injection pressures (Pinj) from 2 to 20 MPa. The shock structure was carefully analyzed in terms of shock width and length. Generally, both the shock width and length decreased with the increase in Pamb. With the increase in Tfuel, the shock length was relatively stable and the shock width overall increased, but a decreasing trend in shock width could be observed at 170 ℃, possibly caused by the near-critical behaviors. Further analysis showed that the shock width shows a strong linear correlation with Δμ·Pamb−0.5 (Δμ denoting chemical potential of phase change) for a given Pinj, and the shock length shows a strong quadratic polynomial relationship with ηinj (injection pressure ratio, defined as the ratio of Pinj to Pamb). Additionally, some new shock structures without Mach disk were observed, indicating that the phase change induced under expansion is different from the typical gaseous under-expansion.

Mixing and Evolution of Laterally Injected Liquid Fuel in Mach 2 Air Channel with Cavity

ABSTRACT The present study deals with the flow structure and mixing characteristics of liquid fuel injected laterally into a supersonic crossflow. The geometry, with a cavity downstream of the injector, mimics a supersonic combustor with a cavity flame holder. A variety of injection schemes and cavity configurations were investigated by means of high-speed schlieren photography. A reflected shock tunnel was employed to generate a Mach 2 air flow and to simulate the high-temperature environment in the combustor. JP-4 liquid fuel was injected at different jet-to-crossflow momentum flux ratios upstream of and from the front wall of the cavity. Results showed that in direct injection into the cavity adjusting the injection angle has significant effect on the local fuel-air ratio. Upstream injection far from the leading edge of the cavity yielded more effective fuel mixing and shorter dissipation length (Ld) than closer injection, due to the development of a vortex on the lee side of the jet core. These results suggest that a combination of upstream injection far from the leading edge of the cavity and inclined direct injection into the cavity may be beneficial for effective mixing in a supersonic combustor cavity flame holder.

Experimental and Numerical Study on the Effect of Hydrogen Addition on Laminar Burning Velocity of Ethanol–Air Mixtures

To understand the effect of hydrogen addition on the laminar burning velocity (LBV) of ethanol–air mixtures, experiments were conducted in a constant volume combustion chamber with the high-speed schlieren photography technique. The experiments were carried out under the equivalence ratios (ERs) of 0.7–1.4, an initial temperature of 400 K, an initial pressure of 0.1 MPa, and hydrogen fractions of 30% and 90% by volume, respectively. The effects of ER, initial temperature, initial pressure, and hydrogen fractions on the LBV were investigated. Moreover, adiabatic flame temperature (AFT), heat release rate (HRR), flow rate sensitivity analysis, and ROP (rate of production) analysis were also performed. Results showed that LBV increased with increasing hydrogen addition and temperature but decreased with increasing pressure. The hydrogen addition significantly increased the HRR of ethanol–hydrogen–air flames. The sensitivity analysis showed that R5 (O2 + H = O + OH) significantly influenced the LBV.

Self-acceleration characteristics of premixed C1-C3 alkanes-air mixtures in a constant-volume chamber

The effects of initial pressure on the self-acceleration characteristics of C1-C3 alkane flames were studied in a constant-volume chamber at an initial temperature of 400 K. The pressures of 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 MPa and the equivalence ratios of 0.8–1.6 were analyzed. Flame propagation images were recorded using high-speed Schlieren photography techniques. The self-accelerating exponent and fractal dimension of C1-C3 alkane flames were measured using the spherically expanding flame method and the Schlieren photography system. The results show that the self-acceleration exponent and fractal dimension of C1-C3 alkane flames increased with the increase in pressure, and the maximum values appeared when the pressure was 1.5 MPa. Furthermore, the evolution of the cellular structure in the flame front during self-acceleration was studied quantitatively. The wrinkling ratio λ=1.0635 can be used to determine the critical point at which the flame is completely cellular. It was found that under the same conditions, for a higher cellular instability of the flame, more cells split on the front surface of the same sized flame, and the cell density increases accordingly. However, the cell density does not increase indefinitely, and upon reaching a certain value, it does not change with the change in working conditions.