High Spatial Resolution X-ray Research Articles

High-Throughput Growth of Armored Perovskite Single Crystal Fibers for Pixelated Arrays.

The poor machinability of halide perovskite crystals severely hampered their practical applications. Here a high-throughput growth method is reported for armored perovskite single-crystal fibers (SCFs). The mold-embedded melt growth (MEG) method provides each SCF with a capillary quartz shell, thus guaranteeing their integrality when cutting and polishing. Hundreds of perovskite SCFs, exemplified by CsPbBr3, CsPbCl3, and CsPbBr2.5I0.5, with customized dimensions (inner diameters of 150-1000µm and length of several centimeters), are grown in one batch, with all the SCFs bearing homogeneity in shape, orientation, and optical/electronic properties. Versatile assembly protocols are proposed to directly integrate the SCFs into arrays. The assembled array detectors demonstrated low-level dark currents (< 1nA) with negligible drift, low detection limit (< 44.84nGys-1), and high sensitivity (61147µCGy-1cm-2). Moreover, the SCFs as isolated pixels are free of signal crosstalk while showing uniform X-ray photocurrents, which is in favor of high spatial resolution X-ray imaging. As both MEG and the assembly of SCFs involve none sophisticated processes limiting the scalable fabrication, the strategy is considered to meet the preconditions of high-throughput productions.

Growth of ultimate high-density scintillating films for high-resolution X-ray imaging at synchrotrons

Scintillators are X-ray to visible light converters applied in X-ray imaging detectors used at synchrotrons. Drastically improved performances of the 4th generation synchrotron sources enable us to perform X-ray imaging experiments at higher energies. For high spatial resolution X-ray imaging (micrometer to submicrometer), thin scintillating films are required. Consequently, especially for high X-ray energies (30keV to 100keV), the detection efficiency is limited due to the low X-ray absorption efficiency of the thin films. We have used Liquid Phase Epitaxy (LPE) to grow thin films of one of the ultimate high-density materials, Lu2Hf2O7:Eu3+, which demonstrate scintillating properties and thus combine high spatial resolution and maximized absorption efficiency. X-ray imaging experiments demonstrate that the Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) reaches 10% at 900 lp/mm, and radiographs visually confirm the promising imaging properties. We present structural, luminescent, and scintillation characterization of Lu2Hf2O7:Eu thin films grown on ZrO2:Y substrates, showing that the films crystallize in the disordered fluorite structure and the europium ions incorporate into the structure and enhance the luminescence intensity. This contribution is a first step toward developing promising ultra-dense, hafnate-based scintillating screens for high spatial resolution X-ray imaging.

Dynamic X-ray imaging with screen-printed perovskite CMOS array.

High performance X-ray detector with ultra-high spatial and temporal resolution are crucial for biomedical imaging. This study reports a dynamic direct-conversion CMOS X-ray detector assembled with screen-printed CsPbBr3, whose mobility-lifetime product is 5.2 × 10-4 cm2 V-1 and X-ray sensitivity is 1.6 × 104 µC Gyair-1 cm-2. Samples larger than 5 cm[Formula: see text]10 cm can be rapidly imaged by scanning this detector at a speed of 300 frames per second along the vertical and horizontal directions. In comparison to traditional indirect-conversion CMOS X-ray detector, this perovskite CMOS detector offers high spatial resolution (5.0 lp mm-1) X-ray radiographic imaging capability at low radiation dose (260 nGy). Moreover, 3D tomographic images of a biological specimen are also successfully reconstructed. These results highlight the perovskite CMOS detector's potential in high-resolution, large-area, low-dose dynamic biomedical X-ray and CT imaging, as well as in non-destructive X-ray testing and security scanning.

The high energy X-ray probe (HEX-P): sensitive broadband X-ray observations of transient phenomena in the 2030s

HEX-P is a probe-class mission concept that will combine high spatial resolution X-ray imaging (&lt;10′′ FWHM) and broad spectral coverage (0.2–80 keV) with an effective area superior to NuSTAR above 10 keV to enable revolutionary new insights into a variety of astrophysical problems, especially those related to compact objects, accretion and outflows. HEX-P will launch at a time when the sky is being routinely scanned for transient gravitational wave, electromagnetic and neutrino phenomena that will require the capabilities of a sensitive, broadband X-ray telescope for follow up studies. These include the merger of compact objects such as neutron stars and black holes, stellar explosions, and the birth of new compact objects. A response time to target of opportunity observation requests of &lt;24 hours and a field of regard of 3π steradians will allow HEX-P to probe the accretion and ejecta from these transient phenomena through the study of relativistic outflows and reprocessed emission, provide unique capabilities for understanding jet physics, and potentially revealing the nature of the central engine.

The high energy X-ray probe (HEX-P): magnetars and other isolated neutron stars

The hard X-ray emission from magnetars and other isolated neutron stars remains under-explored. An instrument with higher sensitivity to hard X-rays is critical to understanding the physics of neutron star magnetospheres and also the relationship between magnetars and Fast Radio Bursts (FRBs). High sensitivity to hard X-rays is required to determine the number of magnetars with hard X-ray tails, and to track transient non-thermal emission from these sources for years post-outburst. This sensitivity would also enable previously impossible studies of the faint non-thermal emission from middle-aged rotation-powered pulsars (RPPs), and detailed phase-resolved spectroscopic studies of younger, bright RPPs. The High Energy X-ray Probe (HEX-P) is a probe-class mission concept that will combine high spatial resolution X-ray imaging (&lt;5 arcsec half-power diameter (HPD) at 0.2–25 keV) and broad spectral coverage (0.2–80 keV) with a sensitivity superior to current facilities (including XMM-Newton and NuSTAR). HEX-P has the required timing resolution to perform follow-up observations of sources identified by other facilities and positively identify candidate pulsating neutron stars. Here we discuss how HEX-P is ideally suited to address important questions about the physics of magnetars and other isolated neutron stars.

The High Energy X-ray Probe (HEX-P): probing accretion onto stellar mass black holes

Accretion is a universal astrophysical process that plays a key role in cosmic history, from the epoch of reionization to galaxy and stellar formation and evolution. Accreting stellar-mass black holes in X-ray binaries are one of the best laboratories to study the accretion process and probe strong gravity—and most importantly, to measure the angular momentum, or spin, of black holes, and its role as a powering mechanism for relativistic astrophysical phenomena. Comprehensive characterization of the disk-corona system of accreting black holes, and their co-evolution, is fundamental to measurements of black hole spin. Here, we use simulated data to demonstrate how key unanswered questions in the study of accreting stellar-mass black holes will be addressed by the High Energy X-ray Probe (HEX-P). HEX-P is a probe-class mission concept that will combine high spatial resolution X-ray imaging and broad spectral coverage (0.2–80 keV) with a sensitivity superior to current facilities (including XMM-Newton and NuSTAR) to enable revolutionary new insights into a variety of important astrophysical problems. We illustrate the capability of HEX-P to: 1) measure the evolving structures of black hole binary accretion flows down to low (≲ 0.1%) Eddington-scaled luminosities via detailed X-ray reflection spectroscopy; 2) provide unprecedented spectral observations of the coronal plasma, probing its elusive geometry and energetics; 3) perform detailed broadband studies of stellar mass black holes in nearby galaxies, thus expanding the repertoire of sources we can use to study accretion physics and determine the fundamental nature of black holes; and 4) act as a complementary observatory to a range of future ground and space-based astronomical observatories, thus providing key spectral measurements of the multi-component emission from the inner accretion flows of black hole X-ray binaries.

The high energy X-ray probe (HEX-P): Resolving the nature of Sgr A* flares, compact object binaries and diffuse X-ray emission in the Galactic center and beyond

HEX-P is a probe-class mission concept that will combine high spatial resolution X-ray imaging (&lt;10″ FWHM) and broad spectral coverage (0.2–80 keV) with an effective area far superior to current facilities’ (including XMM-Newton and NuSTAR). These capabilities will enable revolutionary new insights into a variety of important astrophysical problems. We present scientific objectives and simulations of HEX-P observations of the Galactic Center (GC) and Bulge. We demonstrate the unique and powerful capabilities of the HEX-P observatory for studying both X-ray point sources and diffuse X-ray emission. HEX-P will be uniquely equipped to explore a variety of major topics in Galactic astrophysics, allowing us to 1) investigate broad-band properties of X-ray flares emitted from the supermassive black hole (BH) at Sgr A* and probe the associated particle acceleration and emission mechanisms; 2) identify hard X-ray sources detected by NuSTAR and determine X-ray point source populations in different regions and luminosity ranges; 3) determine the distribution of compact object binaries in the nuclear star cluster and the composition of the Galactic Ridge X-ray emission; 4) identify X-ray transients and measure fundamental parameters such as black hole spin; 5) find hidden pulsars in the Galactic Center; 6) search for BH–OB binaries and hard X-ray flares from young stellar objects in young massive clusters; 7) measure white dwarf (WD) masses of magnetic CVs to deepen our understanding of CV evolution and the origin of white dwarf magnetic fields; 8) explore primary particle accelerators in the GC in synergy with future TeV and neutrino observatories; 9) map out cosmic-ray distributions by observing non-thermal X-ray filaments; 10) explore past X-ray outbursts from Sgr A* through X-ray reflection components from giant molecular clouds.

The high energy X-ray probe (HEX-P): probing the physics of the X-ray corona in active galactic nuclei

The hard X-ray emission in active galactic nuclei (AGN) and black hole X-ray binaries is thought to be produced by a hot cloud of electrons referred to as the corona. This emission, commonly described by a power law with a high-energy cutoff, is suggestive of Comptonization by thermal electrons. While several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the origin, geometry, and composition of the corona, we still lack a clear understanding of this fundamental component. NuSTAR has been playing a key role improving our knowledge of X-ray coronæ thanks to its unprecedented sensitivity above 10 keV. However, these constraints are limited to bright, nearby sources. The High Energy X-ray Probe (HEX-P) is a probe-class mission concept combining high spatial resolution X-ray imaging and broad spectral coverage (0.2–80 keV) with a sensitivity superior to current facilities. In this paper, we highlight the major role that HEX-P will play in further advancing our insights of X-ray coronæ notably in AGN. We demonstrate how HEX-P will measure key properties and track the temporal evolution of coronæ in unobscured AGN. This will allow us to determine their electron distribution and test the dominant emission mechanisms. Furthermore, we show how HEX-P will accurately estimate the coronal properties of obscured AGN in the local Universe, helping address fundamental questions about AGN unification. In addition, HEX-P will characterize coronæ in a large sample of luminous quasars at cosmological redshifts for the first time and track the evolution of coronæ in transient systems in real time. We also demonstrate how HEX-P will enable estimating the coronal geometry using spectral-timing techniques. HEX-P will thus be essential to understand the evolution and growth of black holes over a broad range of mass, distance, and luminosity, and will help uncover the black holes’ role in shaping the Universe.

High spatial resolution X-ray scintillators based on a 2D copper(i) iodide hybrid

Metal halides are considered as an emerging class of X-ray scintillation materials with typical advantages of high-resolution scintillating imaging, low-cost and facile preparation.

The high energy X-ray probe (HEX-P): Galactic PeVatrons, star clusters, superbubbles, microquasar jets, and gamma-ray binaries

HEX-P is a probe-class mission concept that will combine high spatial resolution X-ray imaging (&lt;10″ FWHM) and broad spectral coverage (0.2–80 keV) with an effective area far superior to current facilities (including XMM-Newton and NuSTAR) to enable revolutionary new insights into a variety of important astrophysical problems. With the recent discoveries of over 40 ultra-high-energy gamma-ray sources (detected above 100 TeV) and neutrino emission in the Galactic Plane, we have entered a new era of multi-messenger astrophysics facing the exciting reality of Galactic PeVatrons. In the next decade, as more Galactic PeVatrons and TeV gamma-ray sources are expected to be discovered, the identification of their acceleration and emission mechanisms will be the most pressing issue in both particle and high-energy astrophysics. In this paper, along with its companion papers, we will present that HEX-P is uniquely suited to address important problems in various cosmic-ray accelerators, including Galactic PeVatrons, through investigating synchrotron X-ray emission of TeV–PeV electrons produced by both leptonic and hadronic processes. For Galactic PeVatron candidates and other TeV gamma-ray sources, HEX-P can fill in a large gap in the spectral-energy distributions (SEDs) of many objects observed in radio, soft X-rays, and gamma rays, constraining the maximum energies to which electrons can be accelerated, with implications for the nature of the Galactic PeVatrons and their contributions to the spectrum of Galactic cosmic rays beyond the knee at ∼3 PeV. In particular, X-ray observation with HEX-P and TeV observation with CTAO will provide the most powerful multi-messenger diagnostics to identify Galactic PeVatrons and explore a variety of astrophysical shock mechanisms. We present simulations of each class of Galactic TeV–PeV sources, demonstrating the power of both the imaging and spectral capabilities of HEX-P to advance our knowledge of Galactic cosmic-ray accelerators. In addition, we discuss HEX-P’s unique and complementary roles to upcoming gamma-ray and neutrino observatories in the 2030s.

The High Energy X-ray Probe (HEX-P): supernova remnants, pulsar wind nebulae, and nuclear astrophysics

HEX-P is a probe-class mission concept that will combine high spatial resolution X-ray imaging (&lt;10″ full width at half maximum) and broad spectral coverage (0.2–80 keV) with an effective area far superior to current facilities (including XMM-Newton and NuSTAR) to enable revolutionary new insights into a variety of important astrophysical problems. HEX-P is ideally suited to address important problems in the physics and astrophysics of supernova remnants (SNRs) and pulsar wind nebulae (PWNe). For shell SNRs, HEX-P can greatly improve our understanding via more accurate spectral characterization and localization of non-thermal X-ray emission from both non-thermal-dominated SNRs and those containing both thermal and non-thermal components, and can discover previously unknown non-thermal components in SNRs. Multi-epoch HEX-P observations of several young SNRs (e.g., Cas A and Tycho) are expected to detect year-scale variabilities of X-ray filaments and knots, thus enabling us to determine fundamental parameters related to diffusive shock acceleration, such as local magnetic field strengths and maximum electron energies. For PWNe, HEX-P will provide spatially-resolved, broadband X-ray spectral data separately from their pulsar emission, allowing us to study how particle acceleration, cooling, and propagation operate in different evolution stages of PWNe. HEX-P is also poised to make unique and significant contributions to nuclear astrophysics of Galactic radioactive sources by improving detections of, or limits on, 44Ti in the youngest SNRs and by potentially discovering rare nuclear lines as evidence of double neutron star mergers. Throughout the paper, we present simulations of each class of objects, demonstrating the power of both the imaging and spectral capabilities of HEX-P to advance our knowledge of SNRs, PWNe, and nuclear astrophysics.

Supernova Remnants in the Irregular Galaxy NGC 4449

The nearby irregular galaxy NGC 4449 has a star formation rate of ∼0.4M ☉ yr−1 and should host of order 70 supernova remnants (SNRs) younger than 20,000 yr, a typical age for SNRs expanding into an interstellar medium (ISM) with a density of 1 cm−3 to reach the radiative phase. We have carried out an optical imaging and spectroscopic survey in an attempt to identify these SNRs. This task is challenging because diffuse gas with elevated ratios of [S ii]:Hα is omnipresent in NGC 4449, causing confusion when using this common diagnostic for SNRs. Using narrowband interference-filter images, we first identified 49 objects that have elevated [S ii]:Hα ratios compared to nearby H ii regions. Using Gemini-N and GMOS, we then obtained high-resolution spectra of 30 of these SNR candidates, 25 of which have [S ii]:Hα ratios greater than 0.5. Of these, 15 nebulae are almost certainly SNRs, based on a combination of characteristics: higher [O i]:Hα ratios and broader line widths than observed from H ii regions. The remainder are good candidates as well, but need additional confirmation. Surprisingly, despite having superior imaging and spectroscopic data sets to examine, we are unable to confirm most of the candidates suggested by Leonidaki et al. While NGC 4449 is likely an extreme case because of the high surface brightness and elevated [S ii]:Hα ratio of diffuse gas, it highlights the need for sensitive high-resolution optical spectroscopy, or high spatial resolution radio or X-ray observations that can ensure accurate SNR identifications in external galaxies.

High spatial resolution direct conversion amorphous selenium X-ray detectors with monolithically integrated CMOS readout

Recent progress in the field of micron-scale spatial resolution direct conversion X-ray detectors for high-energy synchrotron light sources serve applications ranging from nondestructive and noninvasive microscopy techniques which provide insight into the structure and morphology of crystals, to medical diagnostic measurement devices. Amorphous selenium (a-Se) as a wide-bandgap thermally evaporated photoconductor exhibits ultra-low thermal generation rates for dark carriers and has been extensively used in X-ray medical imaging. Being an amorphous material, it can further be deposited over large areas at room temperatures and at substantially lower costs as compared to crystalline semiconductors. To address the demands for a high-energy and high spatial resolution X-ray detector for synchrotron light source applications, we have thermally evaporated a-Se on a Mixed-Mode Pixel Array Detector (MM-PAD) Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC). The ASIC format consists of 128 × 128 square pixels each 150 μm on a side. A 200 μm a-Se layer was directly deposited on the ASIC followed by a metal top electrode. The completed detector assembly was tested with 45 kV Ag and 23 kV Cu X-ray tube sources. The detector fabrication, performances, Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) measurements, and simulations are reported.

Interlayer-Spacing Engineering of Lead-Free Perovskite Single Crystal for High-Performance X-Ray Imaging.

Lead-free A3 Bi2 I9 -type perovskites are demonstrated as a class of promising semiconductors for high-performance X-ray detection due to their high bulk resistivity and strong X-ray absorption, as well as reduced ion migration. However, due to their long interlamellar distance along their c-axis, their limited carrier transport along the vertical direction is a bottleneck for their detection sensitivity. Herein, a new A-site cation of aminoguanidinium (AG) with all-NH2 terminals is designed to shorten the interlayer spacing by forming more and stronger NH···I hydrogen bonds. The prepared large AG3 Bi2 I9 single crystals (SCs) render shorter interlamellar distance for a larger mobility-lifetime product of 7.94×10-3 cm2 V-1 , which is three times higher than the value measured on the best MA3 Bi2 I9 SC (2.87 ×10-3 cm2 V-1 ). Therefore, the X-ray detectors fabricated on the AG3 Bi2 I9 SC exhibit high sensitivity of 5791 uCGy-1 cm-2 , a low detection limit of 2.6nGy s-1, and a short response time of 690µs, all of which are far better than those of the state-of-the-art MA3 Bi2 I9 SC detectors. The combination of high sensitivity and high stability enables astonishingly high spatial resolution (8.7 lpmm-1 ) X-ray imaging. This work will facilitate the development of low-cost and high-performance lead-free X-ray detectors.

Highly Efficient, Flexible, and Eco-Friendly Manganese(II) Halide Nanocrystal Membrane with Low Light Scattering for High-Resolution X-ray Imaging.

Scintillators enable invisible X-ray to be converted into ultraviolet (UV)/visible light that can be collected using a sensor array and is the core component of the X-ray imaging system. However, combining the excellent properties of high light output, high spatial resolution, flexibility, non-toxicity, and cost effectiveness into a single X-ray scintillator remains a great challenge. Herein, a novel scintillator based on benzyltriphenylphosphonium manganese(II) bromide (BTP2MnBr4) nanocrystal (NC) membranes was developed by the in situ fabrication strategy. The long Mn-Mn distance provided by the large BTP cation allows the nonradiative energy dissipation in this manganese(II) halide to be significantly suppressed. As a result, the flexible BTP2MnBr4 NC scintillator shows an excellent linear response to the X-ray dose rate, a high light yield of ∼71,000 photon/MeV, a low detection limit of 86.2 nGyair/s at a signal-to-noise ratio of 3, a strong radiation hardness, and a long-term thermal stability. Thanks to the low Rayleigh scattering associated with the dense distribution of nanometer-scale emitters, light cross-talk in X-ray imaging is greatly suppressed. The impressively high-spatial resolution X-ray imaging (23.8 lp/mm at modulation transfer function = 0.2 and >20 lp/mm for a standard pattern chart) was achieved on this scintillator. Moreover, well-resolved 3D dynamic rendering X-ray projections were also successfully demonstrated using this scintillator. These results shed light on designing efficient, flexible, and eco-friendly scintillators for high-resolution X-ray imaging.

Demonstration of the X-ray imaging capabilities of the newly installed multilayer monochromator at SPring-8 BL20B2

Double multilayer monochromators (DMMs) for 40 keV and 110 keV have been installed at BL20B2 in SPring-8. The DMMs provide X-rays with a few percent bandwidths at those energies. The flux density of the X-rays is more than several hundred times higher than that of monochromatic X-rays with a silicon double crystal monochromator, which enables us to perform high-speed X-ray imaging with a large field of view and high spatial resolution X-ray imaging in those high-energy X-rays. Here characteristics of DMMs and some demonstrations of X-ray imaging using the high flux density beams are shown.

Fresnel zone plate point spread function approximation for zeroth order mitigation in millimetric field of view x-ray imaging.

High spatial and temporal resolution x-ray radiography images are required at the National Ignition Facility (NIF) for high-energy density experiments. One technique that is in development to achieve the required resolution uses Fresnel zone plate (FZP) optics to image an object that is backlit by an x-ray source. The multiple FZP diffraction orders do not focus on the same plane, which increases the background and reduces the contrast. Understanding the point spread function of the different diffraction orders will allow the prediction of the expected background using simulations. We find that the two-dimensional point spread function of the FZP can be approximated by the addition of a sharp Gaussian with a disk. This allowed for the estimation of the background in NIF experimental images of Rayleigh-Taylor spikes and their interpretation. An alternative design of FZP is discussed to allow the inclusion of a zeroth order blocker to reduce the background.

Monazite as a monitor of shear strain in orogenic crust

The Ramsay-Graham heterogeneous simple shear zone model revolutionized our understanding of finite strain variation in orogenic belts. Many deeply exhumed (>20 km depths) shear zones in orogenic continental crust are a consequence of sub-simple shear strain accumulation during contraction and displacement at high temperature. Here we explore the micro-scale record of this process using syn-kinematic monazite in two shear zones in a >20,000 km2 terrane of exhumed lower continental crust. Field observations combined with high-spatial resolution X-ray mapping, Th–U-Pb electron microprobe petrochronology, and electron backscatter diffraction analysis demonstrate that monazite grains can provide an important textural and temporal record of shear strain in mylonite and ultramylonite gneisses. Monazite grains exhibit aspect ratios of 1.7–4.6 parallel to the stretching lineation and parallel or oblique (<30°) to the penetrative foliation. Monazite EBSD data for grain orientation spread, i.e., average misorientation relative to the mean, are consistent with no significant dislocation-accommodated internal deformation. We conclude that dissolution precipitation creep of monazite produced compositionally-defined geometries compatible with the dextral sense of shear observed in outcrop and thin section. Syn-kinematic rims on monazite grains that develop in low strain domains during accumulation of shear strain can provide absolute ages for μm-to km-scale kinematics in continental orogens.

Direct observation of solidification behaviors of Fe-Mn-Si alloys during TIG spot welding using synchrotron X-ray

To perform a detailed investigation of the solidification behaviors of alloys during welding, it is crucial to observe the dendrite-scale microstructural evolution. Therefore, by utilizing high-spatial resolution X-ray imaging and diffraction, in this study, a successful technique was developed for the time-resolved and in situ observation of δ- and γ-Fe dendrite growth and solidification cracking behaviors of Fe-Mn-Si alloys during TIG spot welding. For the specimen solidifying in the austenite (A) mode, solidification cracking initiated at the center of the weld pool and propagated toward the weld pool boundary through high-angle dendrite boundaries. However, for the specimen solidifying in a unique ferrite-austenite (FA) mode, many equiaxed γ-Fe dendrites nucleated in front of the growing columnar δ-Fe dendrites. Solidification cracking propagation was suppressed by the numerous equiaxed γ-Fe dendrites that developed at the center of the weld pool. Therefore, the solidification mode significantly influenced the solidification cracking susceptibility.

2D perovskite-based high spatial resolution X-ray detectors

X-ray radiography is the most widely used imaging technique with applications encompassing medical and industrial imaging, homeland security, and materials research. Although a significant amount of research and development has gone into improving the spatial resolution of the current state-of-the-art indirect X-ray detectors, it is still limited by the detector thickness and microcolumnar structure quality. This paper demonstrates high spatial resolution X-ray imaging with solution-processable two-dimensional hybrid perovskite single-crystal scintillators grown inside microcapillary channels as small as 20 µm. These highly scalable non-hygroscopic detectors demonstrate excellent spatial resolution similar to the direct X-ray detectors. X-ray imaging results of a camera constructed using this scintillator show Modulation Transfer Function values significantly better than the current state-of-the-art X-ray detectors. These structured detectors open up a new era of low-cost large-area ultrahigh spatial resolution high frame rate X-ray imaging with numerous applications.