High Self-monitoring Individuals Research Articles

The role of obedience pressure and self-monitoring in public procurement fraud: An experimental analysis

Fraud in public procurement is a critical issue; it erodes public trust and disrupts service delivery. Understanding the factors behind procurement fraud is vital for creating effective prevention strategies. While previous studies have linked obedience pressure to unethical behavior, they have not fully examined the role of self-monitoring. This study addresses this gap by investigating the impact of obedience pressure on fraudulent procurement behaviors, with self-monitoring as a moderating factor. Using an experimental method and a 2x2 factorial design, the study involved accounting students from the University of Muhammadiyah Jakarta. Findings indicate that self-monitoring significantly influences the relationship between obedience pressure and fraud: high self-monitoring individuals do not reduce fraudulent behavior under obedience pressure, unlike their low self-monitoring counterparts. Conversely, highly self-monitoring individuals exhibit less fraud when not under obedience pressure compared to those who experience such pressure. The study concludes that regardless of self-monitoring levels, subordinates tend to follow superior orders, underscoring the need for strict supervision to curb unethical practices. This research enhances attribution theory by highlighting that obedience pressure from superiors is a key factor driving fraud in the procurement process.

Cognitive Flexibility and Advice Network Centrality: The Moderating Role of Self-Monitoring.

This study examined the role of individuals’ cognitive flexibility and self-monitoring in shaping their workplace advice network centrality. Drawing on advice network generation theory, we hypothesized a positive relationship between cognitive flexibility and advice network centrality, and a moderation effect of self-monitoring on this relationship. Then, we collected two time-points data from insurance salesmen to test the hypotheses. As predicted, cognitive flexibility was positively associated with advice network centrality. Furthermore, this positive relationship was only significant for low self-monitoring individuals, but not for high self-monitoring individuals. These findings indicated that individuals with high cognitive flexibility were more likely to have central positions in the advice network; however, this effect was attenuated as their self-monitoring increased.

Sender’s Self-Monitoring Traits: Conducive Factors Affecting Interpersonal Communication among Turkish University Students

Self-monitoring researches show that high self-monitoring individuals have not only ability to self-disclosure but also have ability to facilitate others’ disclosure. The aim of this paper is to define this conducive factors understanding which communication skills of university students in Turkey facilitate others’ disclosure and create dialogic communication. In this study, 24 questions have been directed at participants, in order to make a determination in relation to the conducive skills of university students in Turkey, which allow a dialogue environment to be created during the process of interpersonal communication (N=384). As a result, it has been put forward which of the conducive skills that point out to a dialogue tendency are given importance.

Illusion of Transparency between Individuals of High and Low Self-Monitoring

The purpose of this study is to examine the differences in illusion of transparency between high and low self-monitoring individuals in reference to the experimental paradigm of "drinks recognition" by Gilovich,Savitsky,and Medvec (1998). It is hypothesized that:1) the differences in impression management among the high and low self-monitoring individuals has influence on the strength of illusion of transparency,with a stronger illusion of transparency being demonstrated in low self-monitoring individuals than high self-monitoring individuals; 2) in face-to-face interactive situations between the subjects and audience,subjects with a high level of self-monitoring will show a stronger tendency to focus on subtle feedback from the audience,which may reduce their illusion of transparency. Two experiments were designed to examine these hypotheses. A total of 42 subjects participated in experiment 1. Subjects that scored over 15 on the Self-Monitoring Scale (Snyder,1974) were placed in the high self-monitoring group,and those scored under 9 were placed in the low self-monitoring group. The subjects were required to drink 5 cups of liquids (one of them was vinegar and the rest were water) without revealing the clues of the liquid types from their facial expressions. The drinking process was videotaped and shown to the audience who were requested to tell vinegar from water on the basis of the subjects' facial expressions. The subjects were also asked to estimate the maximum number of correct distinctions between the vinegar and water that would be made by the 10 audience members. In experiment 2,the procedures and number of subjects were the same as experiment 1,except that the subjects performed in front of the audience instead of being videotaped. Findings indicated that low self-monitoring subjects showed a higher level of illusion of transparency than that of the high monitoring subjects. In comparison to the videotaped experiment,the individuals characterized as high self-monitors showed a further decline in illusion of transparency in face-to-face situations. Possible explanations that the high self-monitoring group had a low level of illusion of transparency include the following:the high self-monitoring group,in comparison to the low self-monitoring group,might have tried harder to control their facial expressions and therefore may have experienced a lower level of anxiety. This could be caused by the fact that participants were more confident about their ability to control their facial expressions. Another possible explanation could be that participants were willing to take higher levels of risks regarding judgment. A final explanation could be that these participants observed the reaction of the audience in the face-to-face situation.

The Relationship Between Self-Monitoring and Leadership in Student Project Groups

High self-monitoring individuals respond to cues from others and adapt theirself-presentations to suit their audience. Since one of the goals of this behavioris to create a favorable impression in the audience, self-monitoring has beenidentified as a factor that might be related to an individual's being perceived asa leader. Although several studies have revealed a significant relationshipbetween self-monitoring and leader emergence, relatively few have examined therelationship outside the laboratory setting. The purpose of the two studiesreported in this article was to examine whether self-reported scores on a measure of self-monitoring would be related to leader emergence in student groupsworking on realistic, sustained projects. Study One revealed a low, but significant, correlation between self-monitoring and leader emergence. Study Twofound a negligible relationship in the overall sample, but a significant moderatecorrelation in a group of preferred leaders who were examined separately. Thevariation in magnitude of correlations in the overall sample seemed to beexplained by fluctuations in correlations for females. The relationship betweenself-monitoring and males remained at a low but stable level over the twostudies.

Self-Monitoring and Perception of Performance Norms of Sport Teams

An analysis was carried out of influence of self-monitoring on perception of performance norms, the attitudes shared among team members about how high a performance the group should achieve. High self-monitoring individuals have a higher mean perception of performance norms, whereas the low self-monitoring individuals have lower mean perception of norms.

Investigating the social-adjustive and value-expressive functions of well-grounded attitudes: Implications for change and for subsequent behavior

Recent demonstrations of the plausibility of functional theories of persuasion have occurred within advertising contexts or have targeted potentially nebulous or uninvolving attitudes, and may thus have demonstrated the utility of functional explanations of attitude formation rather than attitude change. In the present study, attitudes that participants have acted on and consider important (i.e., the criteria they use to select dating partners) were the targets of persuasion. High and low self-monitoring individuals, who hold different dating attitudes that serve different functions, were exposed to functionally relevant or functionally irrelevant messages that reached either proattitudinal or counterattitudinal conclusions. As anticipated by functional theory, (a) low self-monitoring individuals changed their dating attitudes only after hearing a counterattitudinal message that addressed thevalue-expressive functions their dating attitudes served, whereas (b) high self-monitoring individuals changed their opinions only after hearing a counterattitudinal message that addressed thesocial-adjustive functions served by their dating attitudes. Although the data revealed that important attitudes can be changed via a functionally relevant appeal, only the low self-monitoring individuals subsequently used their changed attitudes to guide their behavior in a subsequent couple-matching task. Implications of these results for functional theories of persuasion and for variations in attitude/behavior consistency were discussed.

Orientations to conflict: Gender, attributions, resolution strategies, and self-monitoring

Gender differences in relationship quality, conflict perceptions, reported conflict strategy use, and self-monitoring orientations were examined in a sample of undergraduates. It was predicted that males and high self-monitoring individuals would see their relationships as less intimate, themselves as less committed, and would endorse more frequent use of uncooperative and avoidant strategies. Participants (n=124) completed the following: a measure of conflict perceptions; a Conflict Strategy Scale measuring frequency of Cooperative, Uncooperative, and Denial-Avoidant strategies; and Snyder’s Self-Monitoring Scale. Compared to females, males scored higher in self-monitoring, saw friendships as less intimate and stable, saw their conflicts as more stable, and endorsed more frequent use of Denial-Avoidant strategies. Masculine orientations to conflict reflected increased self-presentational concerns and perceptions that minimized the personal relevance of conflict.

Toward a Two-Track Model of Leadership Training

The personality typology of high versus low self-monitoring is presented as a possible moderator of leadership training. The behavior of high self-monitoring individuals is guided by situational factors; these individuals are capable of accurate modifications of their behavior to correspond to social situations, and they are especially skilled in diagnosing social situations. Hence, high self-monitoring leaders should benefit most from leadership training requiring leaders'behavior to change as a function of group contingencies (Track I training). In contrast, the behavior of low self-monitoring individuals is displayed in accordance with internal, dispositional traits and values. These leaders should profit most from training that instructs leaders to alter organizational structures (relationships with boss or with the subordinate group) to produce an effective match between the leader's intrinsic behavioral style and group contingencies (Track I training).

Group Members' Self-Monitoring as a Possible Neutralizer of Leadership

Data derived from responses of 195 staff nurses indicated that the impact of a leader's behavior was neutralized among group members who were low self-monitors, but intensified among group members who were high self-monitors. Correlations between staff nurses' job performance and their ratings of the head nurses' leadership behaviors were not significant for low self-monitoring nurses but were significant for high self-monitoring nurses. Low self-monitoring individuals, who guide their behavior by monitoring internal cues, tended to ignore the leader's behavior but produced effective work when they felt the work was important. High self-monitoring individuals, who guide their behavior by situational cues, depended upon the leader's behavior for effective job performance regardless of the importance of the job.

Orientations toward personnel selection: Differential reliance on appearance and personality.

In two studies we examined the hypothesis that the psychological construct of self-monitoring would identify people who adopt distinctly different strategies in personnel selection. In both experiments, undergraduates examined information about the physical appearance and personalities of two applicants for a specific job and then decided which applicant should receive a job offer. In Study 1 information about the applicants' physical attractiveness and job-appropriate dispositions was varied. In Study 2 job appropriateness of the applicants' physical appearance and of their personalities were both varied. In each study, high self-monitoring individuals placed greater weight on information about physical appearance than did low self-monitoring individuals. By contrast, low self-monitoring individuals put greater weight on information about personal dispositions than did high selfmonitoring individuals. We discuss the implications for understanding personnel selection as well as for decision making in interpersonal contexts. Some of the most important and consequential decisions in people's lives are made by other people. Who to befriend or avoid, marry or divorce, acquit or convict, hire or fire are all decisions about others with potentially significant consequences. A natural concern, therefore, is how these decisions are made. Recent research strongly suggests that people adopt systematically different approaches to gathering, weighing, and acting on information about other people when initiating personal relationships. At least one set of differing orientations may be identified with stable differences between individuals in their self-monitoring propensities (Glick, 1985; Omoto, DeBono, & Snyder, 1987; Snyder, Berscheid, & Glick, 1985). These investigations on the initiation of romantic relationships were guided by the psychological construct of self-monitoring (see Snyder, 1979, 1987). High self-monitoring individuals typically strive to be the type of person called for by each situation in which they find themselves and thus are particularly sensitive and responsive to interpersonal and situational specifications of behavioral appropriateness; they use this information to monitor and control the images of self that they project to others in social situations. As investigations on the initiation of personal relationships indicate, high self-monitoring individuals also appear to carry this concern with their own public appearances to a concern with the images conveyed by people with whom they may be

Self-Monitoring and Innovativeness

This study tested the hypothesis that high self-monitoring individuals would score higher on a measure of innovativeness than low self-monitoring individuals. A two-way analysis of covariance with social desirability as the covariate confirmed the hypothesis for both male and female college students ( n = 187).

Self-Monitoring and Attitude Accessibility

In a study investigating the relation between self-monitoring and attitude accessibility, high -and low-self-monitoring individuals evaluated a wide variety of attitude objects. Attitude accessibility was operationalized in terms of latency of response to these attitudinal inquiries. As predicted, response latencies were faster for low than for high self-monitoring individuals. This finding implies that the attitudes of low self-monitoring individuals are characterized by stronger object evaluation associations and, consequently, are more accessible from memory, relative to the attitudes of high self-monitoring individuals. The implications of the present findings for understanding the mechanisms underlying the moderating influence of self-monitoring on the attitude-behavior relation are discussed.

Personality and sexual relations.

This investigation examined the links between self-monitoring propensities and orientations toward sexual relations. A factor analysis of behavioral and attitudinal survey data revealed that high selfmonitoring individuals tend to establish an unrestricted orientation toward sexual relations (such that they may engage in sex with others to whom they are not necessarily psychologically close), whereas low self-monitoring individuals tend to establish a restricted orientation (such that they will engage in sex only with partners to whom they are psychologically close). At the behavioral level, high relative to low self-monitoring individuals indicated that they had a larger number of different sexual partners within the preceding year, could foresee themselves having sex with a larger number of different partners within the next 5 years, and were more likely to have engaged in sex with someone on only one occasion. At an attitudinal level, low relative to high self-monitoring individuals indicated that they would be more reluctant to have sex with someone to whom they were not committed, and that they would be more uncomfortable with, and less likely to enjoy engaging in, casual sex with different partners. Possible origins and implications of these contrasting orientations are discussed. Throughout the ages, it has been a matter for contemplation, debate, and personal statement: Given human nature, what is the role of love, closeness, and commitment in sexual relations between consenting partners? Are and commitment necessary prerequisites for sexual relations? Is the sexual experience empty and meaningless without psychological closeness between the partners? Or can sex be a comfortable, enjoyable, and even enriching experience for partners who, although attracted to each other, are not psychologically close? If one samples literary, academic, or personal statements made on this issue, one is likely to find pronounced disagreement. Compare and contrast, for instance, the views of Bertrand Russell, Civilized people cannot fully satisfy their sexual instinct without love (1929), and Adrienne Rich, I'd call it if love/ didn't take so many years/ but lust too is a jewel (1966). Indeed, at least within Western cultures, there may be reliable and substantive differences in orientations toward sexual relations. Some people believe that—at least for themselves—sexual relations need not be restricted to relationships in which they and their partners are psychologically close. They may claim, for instance, that if they were attracted to someone, they would feel comfortable and at ease engaging in sex with that person, even if they did not know him or her well. Such people may be said to

Choosing friends as activity partners: The role of self-monitoring.

Two investigations examined the involvement of self-monitori ng processes in friendship. The first investigation focused on the differential considerations that are involved when high self-monitoring individuals and low self-monitoring individuals choose friends as partners for leisure-time activities. High self-monitoring individuals, more so than low self-monitoring individuals, chose friends as activity partners on the basis of their friends' particular skills in the activity domain. Low self-monitoring individuals, more so than high self-monitoring individuals, chose friends as activity partners on the basis of general feelings of liking for their friends. The second investigation examined the internal structures of the preferred social worlds of high self-monitoring individuals and low self-monitoring individuals. High self-monitoring individuals preferred relatively partitioned and compartmentalized social worlds in which they would engage in particular activities only with specific partners. Low self-monitoring individuals preferred relatively homogeneous and undifferentiated social worlds in which they would spend time with friends who were globally similar to them. The implications of these findings for understanding the processes by which individuals high and low in self-monitoring facilitate the enactment of their characteristic behavioral orientations, as well as for understanding the nature of friendship itself, are discussed. Investigations of self-monitoring processes have identified two orientations that individuals can and do adopt as they enact their behavioral choices in social contexts. Some individuals typically strive to appear to be the type of person called for by each situation in which they find themselves. These individuals are particularly sensitive and responsive to social and interpersonal cues to situational appropriateness. Their social behavior displays pronounced situation-to-situation specificity. At the same time, correspondence between their behavior and underlying attitudes often is minimal. These individuals are known as

Choosing social situations: Investigating the origins of correspondence between attitudes and behavior

By choosing to enter and spend time in those social situations that will dispose them to perform the actions implied by their personal attitudes, individuals may generate correspondence between their attitudes and their behavior. To investigate this process, we allowed individuals to choose whether to enter and spend time in a social situation that supported the behavioral expression of attitudes favorable toward affirmative action. For low-self-monitoring individuals, those with favorable attitudes toward affirmative action were substantially more willing than were those with unfavorable attitudes to enter and spend time in this social situation. For high self-monitoring individuals, willingness to enter and spend time in this social situation was unrelated to personal attitudes toward affirmative action; at the same time, high self-monitoring females were more likely than high self-monitoring males to choose to enter and to spend time in this social situation. Implications of these findings for understanding the links between self-monitoring processes and the origins of correspondence between attitudes and behavior were discussed.

Choosing social situations: Two investigations of self-monitoring processes.

Two investigations examined the processes by which individuals choose social situations. In the first investigation, participants chose to enter or not to enter a situation that called for behavioral expressions of extraversion. For high selfmonitoring individuals, willingness to enter this situation was a direct reflection of the clarity with which the extraverted character of the situation was defined. For low self-monitoring individuals, willingness to enter this situation was a direct reflection of their personal dispositions within the domain of extraversion and introversion. In the second investigation, participants were assigned to a situation and were allowed to indicate how the situation might be changed to make them more willing to enter it. The transformed situations of high self-monitoring individuals were of relatively clearly defined character. The transformed situations of low self-monitoring individuals were relatively congruent with their own extraverted or introverted dispositions. The processes by which high self-monitoring individuals and low self-monitoring individuals facilitate the enactment of their characteristic behavioral orientations are discussed.

Intraindividual consistency in personality assessment: The effect of self-monitoring

Low and high scoring individuals on Snyder's Self-Monitoring (SM) Scale were compared for differences in (a) variability in personality descriptions provided by 10 acquaintances, and (b) discrepancies between their self-ratings and the averaged acquaintance ratings. Each subject was rated by 10 different persons (e.g., parent, sibling, roommate, teacher), and the standard deviations of their ratings on each subject for 14 personality dimensions served as dependent measures. Contrary to the first hypothesis, no differences in the variability of acquaintance ratings were observed between SM groups. The second hypothesis received substantial empirical support. High SM subjects showed a significantly larger discrepancy between self-ratings and the mean acquaintance ratings, primarily because they rated themselves more highly on traits than their acquaintances did. High self-monitors also showed less similarity in the shape of the two personality profiles generated by self- and acquaintance ratings across the 14 traits. The discrepancies observed in high SM subjects between self-ratings and the averaged acquaintance ratings (the latter considered to be more objective) extends the finding of Snyder and Tanke (1976) that high SM subjects showed less congruence between self-reported attitudes and behavior. It is suggested that high SM individuals are particularly high on evaluation apprehension and that in both studies they acted in ways which they believed would enhance their self-presentations.