High Restraint Research Articles

Metallurgical analysis of cracking in weldment of propellant tank

Medium strength Al–Zn–Mg aluminium alloy is extensively used in propellant tanks of satellite launch vehicles. The cylindrical tanks are fabricated by TIG welding of sheets and rings into larger diameter pressure vessels. End domes are fabricated by welding petals, and nozzle openings are provided by shrink fit nozzles, welded to the petals. A crack, partly on the overlap region was noticed on one such nozzle weld. A detailed analysis revealed that the crack initiated from the root of pits, propagated under the high longitudinal restraint at the weld stop area, through solute enriched dendrites at the weld fusion line, resulting in an intergranular mode of failure. This is typical of stress corrosion cracking (SCC).

Impact of dieting status and dietary restraint on postexercise energy intake in overweight women.

To investigate the unknown relationship between dieting status and dietary restraint on postexercise energy intake (PE-EI) in overweight sedentary women after a bout of moderate-intensity exercise. Specifically, this was investigated in women who were categorized as dieting with high restraint, nondieting with high restraint, or nondieting with low restraint. This study consisted of two experimental conditions, exercise (E) and nonexercise (NE) in a counterbalanced-crossover design on 2 different days. On the E day, the subjects participated in moderate-intensity exercise, walking on a treadmill for 60 minutes at 60% to 70% of their maximum heart rate. PE-EI at lunch and 12 hours after was compared on the E and an NE day. Dietary restraint was determined using the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire. Participants (n = 36) were 26 +/- 7 years of age, sedentary, and had a mean body mass index of 27 +/- 3 kg/m(2). There was a significant interaction (F((2,33)) = 3.32, p = 0.049) of dieting/restraint status and condition (E vs. NE day) on 12-hour EI. The mean difference in 12-hour EI between the E and the NE day was significantly higher (p < 0.01) for the dieting with high restraint than for the nondieting with high restraint. The results of this study demonstrate that dieting status, high dietary restraint, and higher levels of disinhibition may influence PE-EI in overweight women after a bout of moderate-intensity physical activity.

Severe underreporting of energy intake in normal weight subjects: use of an appropriate standard and relation to restrained eating.

To assess the influence of different standards and restrained eating on underreporting in healthy, non-obese, weight-stable young subjects. Eighty-three young adults (20-38 years, 55 women, 28 men) were assessed under weight-stable conditions with a 7-day dietary record and the three-factor eating questionnaire by Stunkard and Messick. Resting energy expenditure (REE; indirect calorimetry) plus data derived from physical activity records (PA) (Standard 1) or REE times an activity factor (AF) (Standard 2) was used as standard for total energy expenditure (TEE). For comparison, doubly labelled water (DLW) was used to measure TEE in a subgroup of subjects. There was an association between self-reported energy intake and Standard 2 but not with Standard 1. When compared with DLW both calculated standards were inaccurate, but Standard 2 avoided high levels of overreporting. Using Standard 2 to identify 'severe' underreporting (SU; as defined by a deviation of energy intake (EI) and TEE of >20%), SU was seen in 37% of all subjects. It was more frequently found in women than in men (49% of women, 14.3% of men, ). Underreporting subjects had a reduced EI but there were no significant differences in nutritional status (body weight and height, body mass index, fat mass and fat-free mass), energy expenditure and the proportion of energy from macronutrients between normal and underreporting subjects. However, high restraint was associated with a higher degree of underreporting in the total group, whereas disinhibition had an influence only in men. A high prevalence of SU is seen in non-obese subjects. Characteristics of eating behaviour (restraint and disinhibition) were associated with underreporting but seemed to have a different influence in men and women.

Human Factors Considerations for High Chair and Stroller Child Restraints

Falls from high chairs and strollers represent a major childhood hazard. While such products normally include some form of restraint system, their effectiveness may be limited. This research analyzed human factors causes of restraint system failures and recommended design and voluntary standards improvements. Product profiles were developed describing the range of product types, features, users, modes of use, child behaviors, adult caregiver behaviors, and characteristics of restraint failure incidents. Causal analyses then identified eleven primary incident scenarios involving restraint failure. These scenarios in turn were related to six fundamental movements. To the extent a product affords the opportunity for these movements, the effectiveness of the restraint system is reduced. Analyzing the problem in terms of movement affordances, a cross-cutting set of fundamental design issues emerged. These issues suggested a variety of design recommendations for specific product features including belts, seat compartments, crotch restraints, feeding trays, leg restraints, footholds, and barrier devices.

Implications of Threonine Hydrogen Bonding in the Glycophorin A Transmembrane Helix Dimer

The transmembrane helix of glycophorin A contains a seven-residue motif, LIxxGVxxGVxxT, that mediates protein dimerization. Threonine is the only polar amino acid in this motif with the potential to stabilize the dimer through hydrogen-bonding interactions. Polarized Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy is used to establish a robust protocol for incorporating glycophorin A transmembrane peptides into membrane bilayers. Analysis of the dichroic ratio of the 1655-cm −1 amide I vibration indicates that peptides reconstituted by detergent dialysis have a transmembrane orientation with a helix crossing angle of <35°. Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is used to establish high resolution structural restraints on the conformation and packing of Thr-87 in the dimer interface. Rotational resonance measurement of a 2.9-Å distance between the γ-methyl and backbone carbonyl carbons of Thr-87 is consistent with a gauche− conformation for the χ1 torsion angle. Rotational-echo double-resonance measurements demonstrate close packing (4.0 ± 0.2 Å) of the Thr-87 γ-methyl group with the backbone nitrogen of Ile-88 across the dimer interface. The short interhelical distance places the β-hydroxyl of Thr-87 within hydrogen-bonding range of the backbone carbonyl of Val-84 on the opposing helix. These results refine the structure of the glycophorin A dimer in membrane bilayers and highlight the complementary role of small and polar residues in the tight association of transmembrane helices in membrane proteins.

Influence of genetic taste sensitivity to 6- n-propylthiouracil (PROP), dietary restraint and disinhibition on body mass index in middle-aged women

A previous study from our laboratory reported a small, inverse association between taste sensitivity to 6- n-propylthiouracil (PROP) and body mass index (BMI) among lean, young-adult males. Weaknesses in study design precluded making this same observation in females. To overcome these shortcomings, the present study investigated this relationship in older, heavier women characterized by dietary restraint and disinhibition. We tested the hypothesis that lower taste sensitivity to PROP would be associated with higher BMI but that high dietary restraint would mask this association. Thus, no relationship between taster status and BMI was expected in those with high dietary restraint. Eighty-six, middle-aged women (39.0±1.0 years) with a mean BMI of 27.4±0.8 participated. They were classified as PROP nontasters ( n=23), medium tasters ( n=32) or supertasters ( n=31). Initial analyses revealed that disinhibition had a strong positive influence on BMI that was unrelated to PROP status ( P≤.001). After adjusting for disinhibition, a strong interaction between PROP status and restraint on BMI was noted. Among women with low dietary restraint, nontasters ( P≤.01) and medium tasters ( P≤.05) were heavier than supertasters by 6 and 4 adjusted BMI units, respectively. No differences in BMI were found across taster groups in women with high dietary restraint. These data confirm that the inverse association between PROP status and BMI reported earlier in men is also present in women and that this relationship becomes apparent when variables relevant to eating behavior in women are taken into consideration. These findings are discussed in the context of emerging theories relating genetic differences in taste to fat acceptance, fat intake and body weight.

Non-linear structural modelling of a fire test subject to high restraint

The computer code VULCAN has been developed for the three-dimensional structural analysis of composite and steel-framed buildings in fire. In this paper, the main features of the program are outlined, with particular emphasis on the most recent development to the layered procedure for modelling of concrete floor slabs. This development has introduced geometric non-linearity into the modelling of slabs, whose layer structure already allowed temperature distributions and change of material properties through the thickness, as well as modelling the effect of the ribs at the bottom of composite decking slabs. The capabilities of the model are firstly tested at ambient temperature for a uniformly loaded ribbed reinforced concrete slab with simply supported edges, and this is followed by a very detailed modelling of the Cardington restrained beam fire test. In both cases the development of membrane action is demonstrated and the structural behaviour is compared with the geometrically linear case. A number of studies are carried out to demonstrate the influence of the major floor slab details on the behaviour of the structure in fire conditions. These studies provide evidence that when exposed steel temperatures are less than 400°C the concrete slab has little influence, other than to play a part in generating thermal curvature to composite beams. For temperatures higher than about 500°C the effect of the slab progressively becomes much greater, and it is very important to model concrete slabs correctly. The influence of membrane action cannot be ignored, particularly when the fire compartment is subject to high restraint because it is surrounded by cool, stiff structure. At very high temperatures the floor slab becomes the main load-bearing element and the floor loads above the fire compartment are carried by the membrane forces developed in the slab, with tension being carried mainly by the steel anti-cracking mesh or reinforcing bars. However, the effect of the very high in-plane restraint to thermal expansion in the particular Cardington test considered is to enhance the peripheral zone of compressive membrane force and to reduce the extent of the central area of tensile force compared with more usual cases.

Dietary restraint, exercise, and bone density in young women: are they related?

Women with high scores for dietary restraint have been found to have higher 24-h urinary cortisol excretion and a higher prevalence of subclinical ovulatory disturbances, both of which may be risk factors for bone loss. The purpose of this study was to explore relationships between dietary restraint and bone health in regularly menstruating young women. 62 women (age: 21.7 +/- 2.5 yr) had body composition and total body and lumbar spine bone mineral density (BMD) and content (BMC) assessed using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Dietary restraint was assessed using the restraint subscale from the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire: 29 women had low restraint (LR; restraint score 0--5), 33 had high restraint (HR; restraint score 13--21). Exercise (h x wk(-1)) was assessed by questionnaire on two occasions. LR and HR women were similar in age and body composition (fat mass = 15.0 +/- 4.7 kg, lean mass = 40.9 +/- 4.9 kg), but HR women exercised more (3.4 +/- 1.7 vs 2.2 +/- 1.8 h x wk(-1), P < 0.05). Exercise was correlated with BMD and BMC, and when it was included as a covariate, total body BMC was significantly lower in HR than LR women. In multiple regression analysis, weekly hours of exercise and restraint score were significant predictors of total body BMD and BMC. The observations of this cross-sectional study suggest that high levels of cognitive dietary restraint, or associated factors such as higher cortisol, may attenuate the positive effects of exercise on bone in young women.

Cognitive dietary restraint is associated with higher urinary cortisol excretion in healthy premenopausal women

Cognitive dietary restraint, assessed by the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire restraint subscale, is associated with subclinical menstrual cycle disturbances. This association may be mediated by stress-activated cortisol release. We assessed whether 24-h urinary cortisol excretion differs between women with high and low restraint scores. Participants (aged 21.6+/-2.5 y; n = 62) with normal-length menstrual cycles and high (n = 33) or low (n = 29) restraint scores completed a questionnaire describing weight history, dietary practices, and exercise. Cortisol, calcium, and creatinine were measured in urine collected over 24 h on a day when all food and beverages were provided and measured. Previously, 3-d food records and anthropometric measurements were obtained. Age, height, weight, body mass index, and length of menstrual cycle were similar between groups. The reported amount of exercise was higher (3.4+/-1.7 compared with 2.2+/-1.8 h/wk; P<0.05) and energy intakes (assessed from 3-d and 24-h food records) were lower in the high- than in the low-restraint group. Ratios of urinary cortisol (nmol) to creatinine (mmol) were higher in the high-restraint than in the low-restraint group (42.9+/-12.9 compared with 36.3+/-8.9; P<0.05), whereas ratios of urinary calcium (mmol) to creatinine were lower (0.3+/-0.1 compared with 0.4+/-0.2; P<0.05) in the high-restraint group. Urinary cortisol was not associated with exercise, nutrient intakes, or anthropometric measurements. High dietary restraint scores are associated with urinary cortisol, a biological marker of stress, and high cortisol excretion may affect bone health. Our results suggest that further research is warranted to clarify these associations and to determine whether they persist over time.

Parental eating attitudes and the development of obesity in children. The Framingham Children's Study.

To investigate the extent to which parents' degree of dietary self-control, as measured by self-reported dietary restraint, disinhibition, and perceived hunger, affects the development of excess body fat in the child. Prospective observational study. Ninety-two 3-5y old children and their parents, enrolled in 1987 in the Framingham Children's Study. Self-reported levels of parental dietary restraint, disinhibition and perceived hunger were estimated using Stunkard and Messick's Three-Factor-Eating Questionnaire. Anthropometric measurements (height, weight and skinfold measurements at five sites) were obtained yearly for children and parents. The child's activity level was measured on multiple days each year using Caltrac accelerometers. Energy intake and percentage of calories from total fat were estimated from multiple sets of food diaries, collected each year. All analyses were adjusted for the following potential confounders: child's sex and baseline values for age, height, mean physical activity level, total calories and percentage of calories from fat as well as the educational levels of the parents at baseline. Over 6y, children's body fat increased linearly with increasing levels of self-reported parental disinhibition (eg 6y increase in the child's sum of five skinfolds was 34.4, 45.8 and 59.2 mm across increasing tertiles of parental disinhibition, P=0.012). Overall, children whose parents had higher dietary restraint scores had greater increases in body fatness than children whose parents had the lowest levels of restraint. When both parents had above average scores on dietary disinhibition or restraint, the children had greater increases in body fat (on all anthropometry measures) than when only one parent or when neither parent had high scores on those factors. Parental scores on the perceived hunger scale had no clear effect on body fat change of children. Since disinhibition and dietary restraint frequently co-exist, we then examined the joint effect of these two factors. The children with the greatest increases in body fat were those whose parents scored high on both factors. In the final analysis, we found that dietary restraint adversely affected the child's body fat only when associated with high parental disinhibition. This study suggests that parents who display high levels of disinhibited eating, especially when coupled with high dietary restraint, may foster the development of excess body fat in their children. This association may be mediated by direct parental role modeling of unhealthy eating behaviors, or through other indirect, and probably subconscious, behavioral consequences such as the suppression of the child's innate regulation of dietary intake.

Food Acceptance and Genetic Variation in Taste

Objective To determine if individuals who taste 6- n-propylthiouracil (PROP), one marker of genetic variation in taste, as exceptionally bitter can also perceive sugars as sweeter, other bitters as more intense, and dietary fats as more creamy and/or viscous than do individuals who taste PROP as weakly bitter. This study examined the association between genetic variation in taste and acceptance for sweet, high-fat, and bitter foods and beverages. Design Genetic variation was measured by perceived bitterness of PROP. (influenced by genetic, hormonal, and pathologic factors) and density of fungi form papillae on the anterior portion of the tongue (influenced primarily by genetic factors). Four sweet, 3 fat, and 3 bitter groups were derived from principal components analyses of questionnaire items. Subjects Convenience sample of healthy adults (24 women, 22 men; mean age±standard deviation=21±6 years) who did not report high dietary restraint. Statistical analyses Pearson product moment correlations between genetic taste measures and food and beverage groups. Results The sample showed diversity in genetic taste measures: perceived bitterness of 0.0032 mol/L PROP ranged from “weak” to well above “very strong”; fungi form papillae densities ranged from 33 to 156 papillae per square centimeter. Distribution of perceived bitterness of PROP and fungi form papillae density differed in women and men. The association between genetic taste measures and acceptance of sweet and high-fat groups differed in women and men. In women, liking of sweet and high-fat food and beverage groups decreased with increasing perceived bitterness of PROP. In men, liking of these foods and beverages increased but with increasing papillae densities. Genetic taste measures were not associated with a dislike of bitter food and beverage groups. Applications The influence of genetic variation in taste on food intake depends on how perceptible sweet, fat, or bitter components are in foods and beverages, as well as the value of sensory factors vs other factors (eg, health, convenience) on personal dietary choices. Female supertasters of PROP bitterness may avoid high-fat or sweet foods because these oral sensations are too intense and thus less pleasant. Supertasters may taste more bitterness in vegetables but still enjoy eating them because of their healthfulness and because condiments (especially those that are salt based) can block bitterness. J Am Diet Assoc. 2000;100:647–655.

Psychological measures of eating behavior and the accuracy of 3 common dietary assessment methods in healthy postmenopausal women

Factors affecting the accuracy of reported energy intake (rEI) need to be identified. Our objective was to investigate the association of psychological measures of eating behavior with the accuracy of rEI assessed by 7-d weighed intakes, a 24-h recall, and a food-frequency questionnaire. Subjects were 26 restrained eaters aged 60.3 +/- 0.6 y (mean +/- SEM) and weighing 63.8 +/- 1.7 kg and 34 unrestrained eaters aged 59.4 +/- 0.6 y and weighing 64.0 kg. rEI was assessed by using 3 dietary assessment methods and total energy expenditure (TEE) was determined by using doubly labeled water. Calculated EI (cEI) was determined as TEE corrected for the estimated change in body energy. Subjects completed the Eating Inventory. rEI values were significantly lower than TEE values for all 3 dietary assessment methods (P < 0.05); there was no significant relation between rEI and TEE by any method. There was no significant difference in 100 x rEI:TEE between restrained and unrestrained eaters by any of the dietary assessment methods. When combined data from the 3 methods were used, 100 x rEI:cEI was not significantly different from 100% in unrestrained eaters (99 +/- 6.8%) but was lower in restrained eaters (89.1 +/- 5.3%; P < 0.05). There was a positive relation between hunger and 100 x rEI:TEE (P < 0.05). Low hunger is associated with undereating relative to normal eating during measurement of dietary intake; high dietary restraint may be associated with a reduction in reporting of consumed foods. Dietary hunger and restraint assessed with use of the Eating Inventory may help to identify subjects likely to underreport dietary intake.

Repressive-defensive style and physiological reactivity among children and adolescents with asthma

Objective: This study evaluates the concordance of two self-report methods of operationalizing repressive-defensive style in children with asthma. It was hypothesized that, compared with low-anxious children, repressive-defensive children would exhibit increased physiological reactivity during a stressful laboratory task, despite comparable self-reports of state anxiety. Methods: Ninety-one children and adolescents (mean age = 11.5 years) with asthma participated in the study. Repressive-defensiveness was operationalized as self-reported low distress coupled with high defensiveness or restraint. Self-report data reflecting trait anxiety, defensiveness, and personality style were used to classify children as repressive-defensive by two independent methods. Physiological reactivity was operationalized as standardized changes in peripheral temperature, heart rate, and/or skin conductance from baseline to a stressful task. For the stressful task, children spoke into a tape recorder about a stressful or embarrassing event. Results: Each method classified 20% of children as repressive-defensive. However, of the children classified as repressive-defensive by either method (n = 26), only 38% (n = 10) were classified as repressive-defensive by both methods. In addition, regardless of the classification method, repressive-defensive children did not consistently differ from low-anxious children with respect to physiological reactivity under stress, one of the hallmarks of repressive-defensiveness in adults. Conclusion: These results cast doubt on our ability to measure repressive-defensiveness reliably using self-report measures. Future research should determine whether children and adolescents can be reliably classified as repressive-defensive, whether this classification is related to physiological reactivity as in adults, and whether repressive-defensiveness plays a role in emotionally triggered asthma symptoms.

Fire resistance of steel columns with elastically restrained axial elongation and bending

Structures impose elastic restraint to the axial elongation of steel columns submitted to fire and also to the rotation of their extremities. A computer program, based on the Finite Element Method, is used to analyse the influence of these two kinds of elastic restraint on the critical temperature of columns. The values of the load eccentricity, the column slenderness, and the axial and rotational restraint imposed by the structure were chosen as to cover the great majority of situations to be found in practice. It is shown that axial restraint diminishes, in general, the critical temperature of steel columns, while rotational restraint increases it. The fire design situation, proposed in ENV 1993-1-2, of column with fixed ends and no axial restraint, is acceptable only for less slender columns and in the cases where the frame provides sufficiently high rotational restraint to the ends of the column. When the axial restraint is high and the rotational restraint is low, the real critical temperature of steel columns can be much lower than the critical temperature calculated according to the simplifications proposed in ENV 1993-1-2.

ASSOCIATIONS AMONG COGNITIVE DIETARY RESTRAINT, EXERCISE AND BONE STATUS IN YOUNG WOMEN

1415 High levels of cognitive dietary restraint (conscious limitation of food intake to regulate body weight) are associated with ovulatory disturbances, which in turn have been linked to bone loss. This study assessed whether restraint was associated with bone status in young women who reported exercising minimally (<2hrs/wk) or moderately (2-7 hrs/wk). Sixty-one women, 21.6 ± 2.5 yrs old, with high (n=32) or low (n=29) restraint levels completed this cross-sectional study. All reported regular menstrual cycles. Body composition and bone were assessed by DEXA, exercise level by questionnaire, and cortisol by 24-hr urine collection. Women with high and low restraint did not differ in age, ht, wt, fat mass or non-bone lean tissue, although those with high restraint exercised more (3.4 ± 1.7 vs 2.2 ± 1.8 hr/wk; p<0.05) and had higher cortisol/creatinine (42.92 ± 12.92 vs 36.34 ± 8.90; p<0.05). Compared to women who exercised minimally (n=20), those exercising moderately (n=41) had significantly higher whole body bone mineral density (BMD) and content (BMC), and spinal BMD. Among moderate exercisers (n=41), whole body BMC (2553.86 ± 301.64 g vs 2315.30 ± 263.65 g; p<.05) and spinal BMC (65.61 ± 11.21 vs 55.73 ± 14.13 g; p<.05) were higher in women with low than with high restraint, and the difference in spinal BMD approached significance (1.224 ± .150 vs 1.146 ± .097 g/cm2; p=.061). Although several variables correlated with whole body BMC, after controlling for weight, only restraint level and cortisol/creatinine were significant predictors in multiple regression analysis. Whole body BMD, spinal BMD and BMC were predicted only by restraint. These results suggest that high dietary restraint may offset some of the benefits of exercise on bone. The inverse relationship between dietary restraint and bone status may be associated in part with higher cortisol levels, which are known to impact negatively on bone.

Success and failure in the measurement of restraint: Notes and data

Objective The clarification of the present confusion about the confounding of success and failure in the measurement of restrained eating. Method Close inspection of results regarding the Restraint Scale (RS) and the restraint scales of homogeneous measures of restrained eating, for example, the restraint scales of the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ) and the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (DEBQ). Results Various studies have led to the distinction of two different types of confounding of success and failure in the measurement of restrained eating. The first confounding is associated with the RS and the inability of its scores to differentiate between inhibition and disinhibition of restraint in one person, as a result of variance across time within one person in food intake and binging. The second type of confounding applies to the homogeneous measures of restrained eating, for example, the restraint scales of the TFEQ and DEBQ. Here the confounding is associated with the inability of their restraint scores to differentiate between dieters with low versus high susceptibility toward failure of restraint, as a result of variance across persons in food intake and binging. Discussion In contrast to the first confounding, the confounding of successful and unsuccessful dieters in subjects with high restraint scores can be easily unconfounded, by using a two-factorial classification including both scores on [pure] measures of restraint and scales for tendency toward overeating. For future research, the distinction between successful and unsuccessful dieters is an important first step in clarifying why some dieters do overeat under certain conditions. © 1999 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Int J Eat Disord 25: 441–449, 1999.

Success and failure in the measurement of restraint: Notes and data

The clarification of the present confusion about the confounding of success and failure in the measurement of restrained eating. Close inspection of results regarding the Restraint Scale (RS) and the restraint scales of homogeneous measures of restrained eating, for example, the restraint scales of the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ) and the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (DEBQ). Various studies have led to the distinction of two different types of confounding of success and failure in the measurement of restrained eating. The first confounding is associated with the RS and the inability of its scores to differentiate between inhibition and disinhibition of restraint in one person, as a result of variance across time within one person in food intake and binging. The second type of confounding applies to the homogeneous measures of restrained eating, for example, the restraint scales of the TFEQ and DEBQ. Here the confounding is associated with the inability of their restraint scores to differentiate between dieters with low versus high susceptibility toward failure of restraint, as a result of variance across persons in food intake and binging. In contrast to the first confounding, the confounding of successful and unsuccessful dieters in subjects with high restraint scores can be easily unconfounded, by using a two-factorial classification including both scores on "pure" measures of restraint and scales for tendency toward overeating. For future research, the distinction between successful and unsuccessful dieters is an important first step in clarifying why some dieters do overeat under certain conditions.

Restrained Eating Among Vegetarians: Does a Vegetarian Eating Style Mask Concerns About Weight?

The present study explored the relationships among dietary style (ranging from meat eating to veganism), cognitive restraint and feminist values. Two-hundred and twenty-seven participants with varying dietary styles completed the restraint subscale of the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ) and Attitudes Towards Feminism Scale (ATFS). Results indicated that among males, those who are high in cognitive restraint are more likely to exhibit a vegetarian dietary style than those low in cognitive restraint. Among women who are high in feminist values, those with high cognitive restraint are more likely to exhibit a vegetarian dietary style than those with low cognitive restraint, whereas for women low in feminist values those with high and low cognitive restraint are equally likely to exhibit vegetarian and non-vegetarian dietary styles. It is suggested that for some individuals, adoption of a vegetarian dietary style is an attempt to mask their dieting behaviour from others.

Mothers, daughters and dieting: investigating the transmission of weight control.

Research by Pike & Rodin (1991) found higher levels of weight concern and dissatisfaction with family functioning in mothers of eating disordered adolescent girls. The present study sought to extend this research by examining the maternal influences on weight and dieting concerns at a younger age. A cross-sectional comparison of high and low dietary restraint girls and their mothers was used. Two groups of 20 11-year-old girls and their mothers completed assessments of dietary restraint, body shape preference, self-perception, family functioning and body weight and height. Mothers of high restraint girls did not differ from comparison mothers in their current level of dieting, but did report more between-meal snacking and fasting. In addition, they rated their daughters' attractiveness significantly lower than the other mothers. Furthermore, families with a highly restrained daughter scored significantly lower on perceived family cohesion, organization and moral-religious emphasis. The parallel with the findings of Pike & Rodin supports the role that mothers may play in the transmission of cultural values regarding weight, shape and appearance. Importantly, it also places early dieting within a wider context of dissatisfaction with family functioning.

Food for thought: Cognitive regulation of food intake

Objectives. Two studies examined the cognitive regulation of restrained eaters' eating behaviour. It was hypothesized that restrained dieters should have more restraint‐related cognitions in the presence of food stimuli than unrestrained eaters, whereas restrained non‐dieters should occupy an intermediate position. The correlation between cognition and consumption should be zero for unrestrained eaters and negative for restrained eaters.Design. Participants currently dieting or not dieting and of high or low restraint status (median split) were presented in Study 1 with high and low calorie food words and asked to list their thoughts. In Study 2, participants listed thoughts following a taste test. In both studies diet and restraint status were related to restraint relevant thoughts. In Study 2 thoughts were also related to actual consumption.Methods. Participants were female students; restraint status was measured with the Restraint Scale; current diet status was assessed with one question. Fifty‐two unrestrained eaters, 38 restrained non‐dieters and 18 restrained dieters participated in Study 1; 33 unrestrained eaters, 19 restrained non‐dieters and 11 restrained dieters participated in Study 2.Results. Food stimuli elicited more eating control, weight‐ and shape‐related thoughts in restrained dieters than in unrestrained eaters, with the restrained non‐dieters occupying an intermediate position. Consistent with predictions, the cognition‐consumption correlation was zero for unrestrained eaters and negative (trend) for restrained dieters. Contrary to prediction, this correlation was positive for restrained non‐dieters.Conclusions. Results show that cognitions play an important role in the regulation of the eating behaviour of restrained individuals. They further suggest that the cognitive regulation of food intake in restrained eaters may be based on different mechanisms in dieters as compared to non‐dieters.