High Residual Sodium Carbonate Research Articles

Spatial assessment and chemical characterization of degraded (salt-affected) soils at post-reclamation stage of the Indo-Gangetic Plain in Haryana State.

Dynamics of soil salinity and sodicity is a common feature driven by anthropogenic causes such as soil reclamation, the effect of extreme climate events, disturbed salt, and water balance in irrigated areas that are devoid of any good quality groundwater source and adequate natural surface drainage condition in a semiarid climatic region. Periodic soil salinity assessment is therefore vital to know the current soil salinity status, plan reclamation, and/or management strategies for sustained agricultural growth and livelihood security. Temporal studies using Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) LISS III data, at pre- (1997) and post-reclamation (2017) stages have indicated spatial changes as reclaimed areas (~ 35%) and dynamics of soil salinity as increased areas (~ 61%) under irrigation across the Gangetic plain of Haryana State. The prominent areas of reclaimed sodic soil soils were located in the old alluvial plain which covered Panipat (12.32%), Karnal (6.01%), and Jind (5.9%) districts. Based on pH, ECe, and ESP values, these were classified as slight (Sso1, 8.75%), moderate (Sso2, 24.73%), and strong (Sso3, 18.20%) sodic soils, respectively. Significant salinity-inflictions (emerging areas) were identified at low-lying, poorly drained, irrigated soils in south and central Haryana that cover Jhajjar (13.99%), Sirsa (11.06%), Hisar (10.15%), Rohtak (8.73%), Bhiwani (6.43%), Palwal (4.31%), and Rewari (3.01%) districts. Slight (Ssa1, 16.82%), and moderate (Ssa2, 22.13%), categories are dominant soils, respectively. Among the landforms, significant areas (28.24%) were identified in the old alluvial plain with sand dunes (OAPSD), aeo-fluvial plain (AFP, 8.6%), and fluvio-aeolian plain (FAP, 6.0%), respectively. Dominant areas of reclaimed soils (14.4%) were identified in OAPSD. The soil analysis data indicated that these soil are moderate to strongly sodic (pH 8.7-11.0) and saline (ECe 4-26 dS m-1). The reclaimed sodic soils showed prominent improvement in soil pH and sodicity levels (pH 8.3-9.2) at 0-15cm depth and are commonly located in the Ghaggar and Yamuna river plains. Poor quality groundwater with high Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) was dominant at selected locations under the arid and semiarid climate. The database can also be used as a reference database for further monitoring of soil salinity status particularly in the irrigated regions. Currently, it is also used as a primary database for harmonization, monitoring, and reconciling of similar soils of the world under the Global Soil Partnership projects.

Geochemical fingerprint and spatial pattern of mine water quality in the Shaanxi-Inner Mongolia Coal Mine Base, Northwest China

The spatial distribution of mine water quality and geochemical controls must be investigated for water safety and ecosystem protection in Shaanxi-Inner Mongolian Coal Mine Base (SICMB). Based on 122 mine water samples collected from 14 mining areas, self-organizing maps (SOM) combining with principal component analysis (PCA) derived that the mine water samples were classified into seven clusters. Clusters 1 and 3 (C1 and C3) samples were dominant by HCO3-Ca and mixed types, which were distributed in the recharge area of the middle SICMB. In this area, the active groundwater circulation contributed to the good water quality. Cluster 2 (C2) samples were characterized by HCO3-Na type, mainly distributed in the discharge area of the middle SICMB. These samples were threatened by heavy fluorine contamination and high residual sodium carbonate (RSC) because of slow groundwater flow in this area. Clusters 4 and 5 (C4 and C5) samples, distributed in the northeast and middle SICMB, were characterized by high Cl− concentration and light fluorine contamination. They were influenced by anthropogenic input through faults or underground mining. In contrast, Clusters 6 and 7 (C6 and C7) samples with high salinity and sulfate were distributed in the southwest SICMB. The deep groundwater circulation enhanced water-rock interaction and contributed to poor water quality. These findings are beneficial to the management of mine water resources in the SICMB and provide an insight to investigate the mine water quality in large spatial scale.

Zinc fractions and Barley productivity under zinc fertilization and sodic irrigation water management

An experiment was conducted to know the effect of different residual sodium carbonate (RSC) water, farmyard manure (FYM) and different levels of zinc fertilization on different zinc fractions of soil, yield attributes and yield of barley in loamy sand soil under semi-arid climatic conditions. The three levels of RSC of irrigation water (2.5, 5 and 10 mmol/ L), two levels of FYM (control and 15 t/ha) and four levels of zinc (control, 15, 30 and 45 kg ZnSO4/ha) were evaluated on barley production in split plots design. Results indicated that application of high RSC irrigation water (10 mmol/ L) significantly reduced the different fractions of soil Zn (except Occ-Zn), plant height, total and effective tillers, test weight and yield of barley during both the years, while 5 mmol/L of RSC irrigation level found at par with 2.5 mmol/L. Application of FYM significantly increased the different Zn fractions in soil (except Occluded- Zn) as well as yield attributes, grain and straw yield of barley. The increasing level of zinc application significantly increased the different fractions of soil Zn (except Occ-Zn), available soil Zn, yield attributes and yield of barley. It was observed that the grain yield of barley positive and significantly correlated with different fractions of Zn, viz. DTPA-Zn (r=0.888), Ads-Zn (r=0.525), Occ-Zn (r = 0.670), OC-Zn (r = 0.948) and Res-Zn (r = 0.923). The optimum dose of zinc for barley computed as 37.6 kg / ha ZnSO4 with corresponding optimum yield of 4365 kg/ha.

High residual sodium carbonate water in the Indian subcontinent: concerns, challenges and remediation

Water scarcity has become one of the major limiting factors in global agriculture, particularly in the arid and semi-arid regions of the world. This necessitates irrigation with marginal-quality waters including those with high levels of residual sodium carbonate (RSC) and an important water quality parameter. Extended use of high RSC water leads to accumulate sodium in the soil which alters physical and chemical properties of soils. The electrical conductivity is a good index of salinity while sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) that of sodicity hazard of irrigation water. It has been found that waters with high RSC values are more hazardous compared to no RSC water of equal SAR. Sustainable agriculture on these soils demands to adopt certain site-specific management strategies prior to use such low-quality waters for the economic production of crops. Strategies like dilution with low salt water and addition of calcium-based amendments, along with organic manures have been traditionally practiced and giving some promising results. It is well documented that for improving plant growth, irrigation to achieve low leaching fraction is necessary for the purpose of reducing the transport of solutes that are responsible for the degradation of water quality and provides an efficient use of limited water supplies. In addition, implementations of government policies and public–private sector collaborations are necessary to find new horizons for the management of high RSC irrigation waters in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. This article provides an overview of soil permeability problems associated with the irrigation using high RSC waters.

Consequence of Groundwater Irrigation on Physico-chemical Properties of Soils of Kanholibara Village in Nagpur District, Maharashtra, India

A field experiment entitled “Effect of Groundwater irrigation on various soil properties of Kanholi-Bara in Nagpur District Was conducted during Kharif season of 2015-2016 at Kanholi-Bara of Hingana tahsil in Nagpur District Maharashtra, India. The soil samples were collected from that area comprises two source of irrigations viz well water and bore well water and soybean crop which were taken in these fields. The mean value of pH 7.79 was recorded with ground water irrigation and EC in groundwater irrigated soil 0.81 dS m-1.The organic carbon contains in ground water irrigated soil with high Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) and Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) was lower by 35.19 per cent less than mean value of organic carbon. The lowest available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium status were 185.44, 15.65 and 178.80 kg ha-1 respectively were obtained with the application of ground water of high RSC and SAR. Whereas the highest accumulation of heavy metal in soil 1.16 mg kg-1 lead, 1.30 mg kg-1 Cobalt, 1.19 mg Kg-1Nikel and 0.037 mg kg-1 Cadmium were present in soil with the application of high SAR and RSC irrigation water. Due to continuous and injudicious irrigation with poor quality groundwater adversely affect the physical and chemical properties of soil.

Quality assessment of some water sources and soil under sea water intrusion conditions in North Nile Delta, Egypt

Poor water quality mainly exists because of the increasing population and horizontal expansion which are associated with deterioration in sanitation and crop productivity. The present study is aiming to assess the quality of different water sources and soil under sea water intrusion along 3 directions in North Delta, kafr Elsheikh Governorate. A total of 45 water samples were collected from 15 loctions along 3 lines. The results showed that the salinity, sodicity and nitrate concentrations of irrrigarion water were increased toward the north due to the use of blended water for irrigation.The concentrations of Mn, Pb, Cd, Fe and Zn for all drains were varied from 0.20 to 1.36, 0.15 to 0.97, 0.0 to 0.2, 0.29 to 2.70 and 0.0 to 0.1 mgL-1, respectively. The lowest values of soil salinity and sodicity were recorded far from the sea, while the highest values were recorded near the sea. It could be rendered to the effect of artesian pressure of saline ground water near the sea, where the highest value reached 20.25 dS/m in line 1 and the lowest value was observed in line 3. Sea water intrusion were calculated for the studied groundwater samples and followed the decending order of: line 3˃ line 2˃ line 1. On the other hand, appreciable quantities of residual sodium carbonate (RSC) were -1.51, -7.99 and -34.1 for irrigation, drainage and groundwater, respectively. The water samples having high RSC can have an appreciable sodicity hazard.

Reclamation of High Residual Sodium Carbonate Water with Commercial Sulphuric Acid for Sustainable Cropping and Soil Conservation

Abstract A study was carried out in field experimental area of directorate of land reclamation Punjab, Lahore, to investigate the effect of experimentally quantified commercial sulphuric acid (76%) on residual sodium carbonate (RSC) of water, soil quality and crop yield. The findings were clear indications of effectiveness of acid injection approach to treat water. The sulphuric acid application reduced the RSC value of 6.1 to nil by making (T2) slight change in EC of water. This treated water not only improved the soil quality by decreasing its calcareousness from 20 to 17.2 making soil soft while the same increased to 23 in control (T1), where not acid amendment was done. Similarly, SAR of soil was also restricted from an increase by acid treated water rather than the control set of experiment. To make RSC nil, 5.19 liters of sulphuric acids were injected in water for 3 acre inch irrigation. An increase of 16.65% in grain yield of wheat crop was observed upon harvesting in T2, in comparison with control. Ascorbic acid and total phenolic contents (TPC) were also high in T2, followed by T3 and T1. All the changes in soil parameters and crop yield were found statistically significant.

Interventions of High Residual Sodium Carbonate Water-Degraded Soils Amelioration Technology in Indian Thar Desert and Farmers’ Response

Eight on-farm trials were conducted during 2008–2011 to investigate the effect of various levels of gypsum application (100, 50, 25 and 0 % of GR) on soil properties and yield of wheat grown on Typic Haplocambids soils irrigated with high residual sodium carbonate (RSC) water. Gypsum requirement (GR) was calculated on the basis of soil gypsum requirement plus quantity of gypsum required to neutralize RSC of irrigation water in excess of 3 me/l. The present study indicated that gypsum application at the rate of 100 % GR decreased soil pH by 0.3–1.0 units and SAR by 10.9–13.1 over control at 0–15 cm soil depth. The grain yield of wheat increased by 600–1700 kg/ha with the gypsum application at the rate of 100 % GR.

Evaluation of the Impact of Different Soil Salinization Processes on Organic and Mineral Soils

Soil salinization is a worldwide problem of which secondary salinization is increasingly more frequent, threatening agricultural production. Salt accumulation affects not only plants but also the physio-chemical characteristics of the soil, limiting its potential use. Climate change will further increase the rate of salinization of soil and groundwater as it leads to increased evaporation, promotes capillary rise of saline groundwater as well as increased irrigation with brackish water. Episodic seawater inundation of coastal areas is likely to increase in frequency as well. This work analyzed three types of salinization: seawater inundation (by irrigating soils with a 54 dS m−1 NaCl solution), saline groundwater capillary rise (soil contact with a 27 dS m−1 NaCl solution), and irrigation with two types of brackish water with different residual sodium carbonate (RSC). Two soils were used: a mineral soil (7.0 % clay; 0.7 % organic matter) and an organic soil (2.7 % clay; 7.4 % organic matter). The tested soils had different resilience to salinization: The mineral soil had higher sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) due to low levels of calcium + magnesium but had higher leaching efficiency and more limited effects of RSC. The organic soil however was more prone to capillary rise but seemingly more structurally stable. Our results suggest that short-term inundation with seawater can be mitigated by leaching although soil structure may be affected and that capillary rise of brackish groundwater should be carefully monitored. Also, the impact of irrigation with brackish water with high RSC can be inferior in soils with higher exchangeable acidity.

Yield and quality of two tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) cultivars as influenced by drip and furrow irrigation using waters having high residual sodium carbonate

Performance of tomato when irrigated with sodic waters particularly under drip irrigation is not well known. A Weld experiment was conducted for 3 years to study the response of tomato crop to sodic water irrigation on a sandy loam soil. Irrigation waters having 0, 5 and 10 mmol c L i1 residual sodium carbonate (RSC) were applied through drip and furrow irrigation to two tomato cultivars, Edkawi (a salt tolerant cultivar) and Punjab Chhuhara (PC). High RSC of irrigation water signiWcantly increased soil pH, ECe and exchangeable sodium percent- age progressively; the increases were higher in furrow com- pared to drip irrigation. EVect of high RSC on increasing bulk density and decreasing inWltration rate of soil was also pronounced in furrow-irrigated plots. Higher soil moisture and lower salinity near the plant was maintained under drip irrigation than under furrow irrigation. Performance of the two cultivars was signiWcantly diVerent; pooled over 2002- 03 and 2003-04 seasons, PC yielded 38.8 and 30.0 Mg ha i1 and Edkawi yielded 31.8 and 22.9 Mg ha i1 under drip and furrow irrigation, respectively. At RSC10, cultivar PC pro- duced 38 and 46% higher fruit yield than cultivar Edkawi under drip and furrow irrigation, respectively. Reduction in fruit yield at higher RSC was due to lower fruit weight under drip irrigation and due to reduced fruit number as well as fruit weight under furrow irrigation. Decrease in fruit weight was more pronounced in cultivar Edkawi than in cultivar PC. Increase in RSC lowered quality of the fruits except the ascorbic acid content. High RSC under drip irri- gation, in general, had lesser deteriorating eVect on the fruit quality particularly for cultivar PC than under furrow irri- gation. For obtaining high tomato yield and better-quality fruits using high RSC sodic waters, drip irrigation should be preferred over furrow irrigation. Better performance of local cultivar PC compared to Edkawi at medium and high RSC suggests that cultivars categorized as tolerant to salin- ity should be evaluated in the sodic environment particu- larly when irrigated with high RSC sodic waters.

Trace elements accumulation in soil and rice plants irrigated with the contaminated water

We carried out a study to see the effect of contaminated water of Nullah Dek on fine rice paddy and straw yields and trace elements accumulation in different parts of rice plants and soil. A site was selected near the bank of Nullah Dek at Kot Pindi Das in the District of Sheikhupura, Pakistan. The water of this nullah is contaminated by industrial effluents carrying different micronutrients. This water was employed to grow rice crop. Water samples were collected before transplanting and during the season with 15 days interval for analysis from 20 July to 1 November 2002 from a spot near village Shamke. Three fine rice varieties, viz. Super Basmati, Shaheen Basmati and Basmati 2000 were transplanted. These rice varieties were grown up to maturity. Paddy and straw yields data were recorded. Six composite soil samples from three random spots were collected from the experimental site before the start of the study to see the status of trace elements in soil. After the harvest of rice crop, soil, paddy and straw samples were analysed for Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn. The chemical analysis of Nullah Dek water showed that total salts concentration was greater than the safe limit, i.e. electric conductance (EC) > 1.0 dS m −1. Even sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) was very high, but there was no problem of high residual sodium carbonate (RSC). Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn were present but within safe limits. The water of Nullah Dek remained within permissible limits of irrigation from onset of rainy season till 15 October. There was an increase in EC, SAR and trace elements concentrations after 15 October but within safe limits. Soil analysis revealed its saline nature, devoid of sodicity. Among trace elements, the zinc ranged between deficiency (<0.5 mg kg −1) and adequate limits (>1.0 mg kg −1). Copper, Mn and Fe were present in adequate amounts. After the harvest of rice crop there was a slight decrease in pH, EC e and SAR at both the depths, while the concentrations of all trace elements were slightly increased with more in upper layer than the lower layer. Shaheen Basmati produced the maximum paddy yield followed by Basmati 2000 and then Super Basmati. The chemical analysis of paddy samples indicated a sufficient accumulation of zinc (1.68–1.78 mg kg −1), copper (1.38–1.45 mg kg −1), iron (6.12–6.37 mg kg −1) and manganese (2.22–2.42 mg kg −1). Analysis of rice straw also showed sufficient accumulation of zinc (27.50–28.50 mg kg −1), copper (20.0–20.50 mg kg −1), iron (270–280 mg kg −1) and manganese (2.38–2.41 mg kg −1).

Utilization of high residual sodium carbonate water neutralized with chemical amendments for fodder sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) production

The effect of high residual sodium carbonate (RSC) irrigation water and its neutralization with gypsum/H SO 2 4 on sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] was evaluated in a micro-plot experiment during rainy (kharif) season (May to September 2013) at ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana. The experiment was conducted in randomised block design, consisted of 5 treatments of different RSC levels [RSCnil (control), RSC 5meq/L, RSC10meq/L, RSC10meq/L (neutralized 5meq/L with gypsum), RSC10meq/L (neutralized 5meq/L with H SO )] with 4 replications. Increase in concentration of RSC in water from RSC 5 to 10 resulted in reduction 2 4 in growth parameters like plant height, leaf to stem green biomass, leaf area index, but extent of reduction was lesser, while using RSC water reclaimed with gypsum and sulphuric acid. Neutralization of RSC in irrigation water with gypsum proved a safer and economical option to use high RSC groundwater for irrigation of sorghum for prof- itable fodder production as compared to sulphuric acid.

Effect of residual sodium carbonate in irrigation water on the soil sodication and yield of palmarosa ( Cymbopogon martinni) and lemongrass ( Cymbopogon flexuosus)

The effects of residual sodium carbonate (RSC) in irrigation water on soil sodication and yield and cation composition of palmarosa ( Cymbopogon martinii Roxb. Wats) and lemongrass ( Cymbopogon flexuosus Steud Wats) were studied in the open bottom reinforced concrete cemented (RCC) cylindrical barrels embedded in the field and filled with sandy loam soils. The results indicated that the increasing RSC in irrigation water significantly increased the pH, electrolyte conductivity (ECe) and SARe of the soil and, hence, considerably decreased the herb and oil yield of both the palmarosa and lemongrass. The reduction in total herb yield was 14.5, 18.3, 28.8 and 32.0% in palmarosa and 38.6, 46.0, 57.7 and 62.6% in the lemongrass over control at 4.0, 8.0, 12.0 and 16.0 meq/l of RSC, respectively. The total oil yield of palmarosa increased by 22.6% with the increase in RSC from 2.0 (control) to 4.0 meq/l and further increase in RSC decreased the oil yield by 13.0, 22.4 and 22.9% over control at 8,12 and 16 meq/l of RSC, respectively. The total oil yield of lemongrass was decreased by 27.0, 39.4, 47.7 and 50.8% over control at 4, 8, 12 and 16 meq/l, respectively. The concentration of Na increased significantly and K and Ca decreased with increase in RSC of irrigation water in vegetative tissues of both species. The lemongrass accumulates significantly greater amount of Na in shoot tissues as compared to palmarosa and it failed to survive at high RSC after 21 months of transplanting. The results suggests that palmarosa is more tolerant to irrigation water sodicity than the lemongrass.

Potentiality of Landsat, SPOT and IRS satellite imagery, for recognition of salt affected soils in Indian Arid Zone

Abstract Landsat, SPOT and IRS data, black and white and false colour composite (FCC) imagery of the summer (April, May), rainfed crop season (October) and winter irrigated crop season (January, February) of Indian Arid Zone were interpreted for recognition or three types of salt affected soils, viz. (1) natural salt affected; slight, moderate and severe, (2) saline soils due to saline water irrigation, (3) sodic soils due to high residual sodium carbonate (RSC) water irrigation. These were field checked and supported by analytical data. The Landsat-MSS band 4 could only provide the overall extent of salinity. The moderate and severe natural salt affected soils were identified by Landsat-MSS band 2, Landsat-MSS and TM, IRS LISS-I and LISS-II and SPOT HRV2 data for April and January. But the differentiation between the saline and sodic soils was possible only by the use of multi-date imagery (October and January) and the clue provided by the cropping pattern. The potentiality of remote sensing data product...

Spectral reflectance characteristics of salt-affected arid soils of Rajasthan

The spectral reflectance characteristics of different types of natural and anthropogenic salt-affected soils have been studied under field conditions. The spectral reflectance value for non-saline and all types of salt-affected soils was maximum in near infra red region (800–1000 nm). The natural salt-affected soils having surface salt encrustation showed highest reflectance value followed by the sodic soils (formed due to high residual sodium carbonate water irrigation) natural saline soils and saline soils due to saline water irrigation. Soil texture, pH, CaC03 and organic matter together accounted for 29.6% variation in the maximum reflectance percentage value out of which only pH accounted for more than half (14.2% variation).

Effect of continuous irrigation with sodic and saline-sodic waters on soil properties and crop yields under cotton-wheat rotation in northwestern India

A field experiment was conducted for 8 years (1983–1991) on a well-drained sandy loam Typic Ustochrept soil involving sodic (NaHCO 3) and saline-sodic (NaHCO 3 + NaCl) irrigation waters under cotton-wheat rotation. Soil pH and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) increased with increase in residual sodium carbonate (RSC) and SAR of the irrigation water. The build up of salts and ESP was considerably higher under saline-sodic irrigation treatments. From amongst the empirical equations used for predicting the sodicity hazards of irrigation waters, the Rhoades equation could fairly accurately predict the build up of ESP for sodic waters containing mainly NaHCO 3. The modified Ayers and Westcot equation predicted the ESP for all the sodic waters and also for the saline-sodic waters with high RSC values. For the waters with high SAR values due to a high NaCl concentration and low RSC values, none of the models could predict the build up of ESP. Under the cotton-wheat rotation, irrigation waters with high RSC values decreased the crop yields considerably more than irrigation waters with low RSC and high SAR values. The decrements in the yields of both wheat and cotton crops were almost similar under increasing levels of RSC in irrigation water.