High Mountain Climate Research Articles

Climbing the Alps in a warming world: Perspective of climate change impacts on high mountain areas influences alpinists' behavioural adaptations

Climate change is having a major impact on high mountain areas, with glacier retreat and permafrost warming. Alpinism is deeply affected by this changing environment, which increases the technicality of the routes, their dangers, and the uncertainty of the periods of suitable climbing conditions during the summer. This raises the question of how recreational alpinists perceive and adapt to changing conditions. To answer this question, this paper reports the results of a quantitative social media survey of European alpinists based on the substitutability theory. The results from the 1071 completed questionnaires show that climate change and its impacts are clearly observed and identified by recreational alpinists; the higher the awareness of the changes, the more likely they are to engage in adaptation behaviours such as temporal, activity and spatial substitution, and informational coping. Furthermore, the more respondents perceive that climate change is affecting their practice in terms of degraded routes, increased risk, or increased frequency and magnitude of rockfalls, the more they engage in adaptation behaviours. Although adaptation seems to be sufficient to ensure satisfactory practice conditions, the development of communication for less informed alpinists, as well as the development of climate services, could be valuable to ensure sustainable and safe practices. Management implicationsRecreational alpinists' awareness of the impacts of climate change on alpinism increases their adoption of substitution and coping behaviours. The results highlight the importance for alpine organisations to communicate research on high mountain changes, especially to novice or occasional alpinists who may be less informed. The results also suggest the importance of high mountain climate services to support decision making. This could include proposing maps and topographical guides that specifically show how climate change will affect the most frequently used routes, or developing indicators such as the Rockfall Susceptibility Index.

Geomatic Techniques Applied to the Dynamic Study (2001–2019) of the Rock Glacier in the Veleta Cirque (Sierra Nevada, Spain)

During the Little Ice Age (LIA), Corral del Veleta (Sierra Nevada) housed a small glacier of which relict glacial ice and permafrost still remain under packets of ice blocks. Currently, it is considered the southernmost rock glacier in Europe. The analysis and results of monitoring carried out on this rock glacier reveal it to be in an accelerated process of immobilization and that the relict glacial ice blocks and permafrost on which it lies are in a continual process of degradation. The rock glacier was monitored from 2001 to 2019 using diverse geomatic techniques, to which geophysical and thermal techniques were added. The results obtained during the observation period shed light on the dynamic of the rock glacier (morpho-topographic movements and deformations) as well as the physical state of the underlying frozen bodies (volumetric reduction and spatial distribution). The changes observed are related to variations in the dominant high-mountain climate of Sierra Nevada, particularly since the end of the 20th century, the general tendencies of which are increasing temperatures, decreasing annual snowfall, and a shorter duration of snow on the ground.

Small glaciers in Pirin (Bulgaria) and Durmitor (Montenegro) as glacio-karstic features. Similarities and differences in their recent behaviour

Small glaciers on the Balkan Peninsula are tiny masses of firn and ice (areas from 0.5 to 5 ha) which have been proved permanent at least since the coldest phases of the Little Ice Age, and are slowly moving under their own gravity. These are considered glacial, but also karstic features at the same time, because the topography that provides for their existence in the marginal conditions of the Mediterranean climate is result of the occurrence of Pleistocene glaciation together with the carbonate rocks and the karst processes related to them. Small glaciers on the Balkan Peninsula are among the most southerly situated in Europe. They are very sensitive to short-term variations of climate, and serve as natural indicators for climate change. The present study is dedicated to small glaciers in Pirin (Bulgaria) and Durmitor (Montenegro) as representative high mountain glacio-karstic features from the western and the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula respectively. The similarities and differences in their inter-annual behaviour (changes of size) reflect the general and peculiar characteristics of high mountain climate, and the specific influence of topography. In the conditions of climatic warming a downward trend is registered in their development for the period on the focus of this study: 2005–2017. In the last several years this trend has a stronger expression in the western Balkans.

Local climates of Vardar, Struma and Mesta valleys (Balkan peninsula) according to the modified Köppen climate classification

The K?ppen classification is commonly used and helpful for characteristics of different climate types and their changes. Available maps based on this classification are dealing with continental and worldwide zones. This is the reason mountainous territory of the Balkans to be defined as zones with cold or high mountain climate without further details. The main aim of the study is detail classification of the territory of Vardar, Struma and Mesta in the view of the K?ppen system and establishing the inner zones variability trough time. In order to achieve this goal we use the SAT (surface air temperature) and precipitation data from meteorological stations located in key areas of the valleys. We build 30 year moving average to present climate fluctuations in these areas according to the modified K?ppen classification. Results show that index changing is variable through the different periods but there has a tendency for general reduction of the annual precipitation in the whole period of observation.

High mountain communities and climate change: adaptation, traditional ecological knowledge, and institutions

Our planet has already committed to climate change and will experience its associated impacts; thus, mitigation along with adaptation strategies cannot be mutually exclusive. Yet, international and national policies to tackle climate change have focused more on mitigation than adaptation. On the other hand, indigenous communities have been continuously adapting to environmental stresses for millennia, including more recent cascading impacts of climate change. Indigenous communities have developed a wealth of information in the form of their traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), based on their observations of the obvious linkages between changing climatic conditions and biodiversity. Here, I hypothesize that in harsh environments such as the alpine Himalaya, social systems particularly local institutions that are largely based on TEK are important in improving adaptive capacity by providing social, economic, and ecological security to the community. I provide an insight into the adaptation strategies of two communities that inhabit the alpine zones of the Sikkim Himalaya, in India. We address two broad questions: (1) How are indigenous communities in the vulnerable alpine zones of the Himalaya adapting to the complex challenges posed by climate change particularly in conjunction with their indigenous governing institution? We give examples of adaptation strategies and broadly categorize them into six groups, namely (a) Institutional capital, (b) Rationing, (c) Forecasting, (d) Mobility, (e) Economic diversification, and (f) Communal pooling. (2) How can TEK be integrated with climate change sciences for improving data availability and better policy? I conclude with a framework that uses a holistic approach complementing the rigor of science with the wealth of TEK to suggest pathways for improved policy response to climate change.

Implementation of a webGIS service platform for high mountain climate research: the SHARE GeoNetwork project

The implementation of a webGIS service platform dedicated to the management and sharing of climatological data acquired by high elevation stations is the core of the Station at High Altitude for Research on the Environment (SHARE) GeoNetwork project, promoted by the Ev‐K2 CNR Committee. The web platform basically will provide three types of services: structured metadata archive, data and results from high‐altitude environments research and projects; access to high‐altitude Ev‐K2 CNR stations and creation of a network of existing stations; dedicated webGIS for geo‐referenced data collected during the research. High elevation environmental and territorial data and metadata are catalogued in a single integrated platform to get access to the information heritage of the SHARE project, using open‐source tools: Geonetwork for the metadata catalogue and webGIS resources, and the open‐source Weather and Water Database (WDB), developed by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute, for the database information system implementation. The information system is designed to have a main node, with the possibility to install relocated subsystems based on the same technology, named focal point of SHARE, which will contain metadata and data connected to the main node. In this study, a new structure of metadata for the description of the climatological stations is proposed and WDB adaptation and data preprocessing are described in detail, giving code and script samples.

Unraveling driving factors for large rock–ice avalanche mobility

ABSTRACTLarge rock–ice avalanches have attracted attention from scientists for decades and some of these events have caused high numbers of fatalities. A relation between rock slope instabilities in cold high mountain areas and climate change is currently becoming more evident and questions about possible consequences and hazard scenarios in densely populated high mountain regions leading beyond historical precedence are rising. To improve hazard assessment of potential rock–ice avalanches, their mobility is a critical factor. This contribution is an attempt to unravel driving factors for the mobility of large rock–ice avalanches by synthesizing results from physical laboratory experiments and empirical data from 64 rock–ice avalanches with volumes >1x106 m3 from glacierized high mountain regions around the world. The influence of avalanche volume, water and ice content, low‐friction surfaces, and topography on the apparent coefficient of friction (as a measure of mobility) is assessed. In laboratory experiments granular ice in the moving mass was found to reduce bulk friction up to 20% while water led to a reduction around 50% for completely saturated material compared with dry flows. Evidence for the effects of water as a key driving factor to enhance mobility was also found in the empirical data, while the influence of the ice content could not be confirmed to be of much relevance in nature. Besides liquefaction, it was confirmed that mobility increases with volumes and that frictional surface characteristics such as flow paths over glaciers are also dominant variables determining mass movement mobility. Effects of the topography along the flow path as well as channeling are assumed to be other critical factors. The results provide an empirical basis to roughly account for different path and flow characteristics of large rock–ice avalanches and to find appropriate ranges for friction parameters for scenario modeling and hazard assessments. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Effect of temperature on the progamic phase in high‐mountain plants

Progamic processes are particularly temperature-sensitive and, in lowland plants, are usually drastically reduced below 10 °C and above 30 °C. Little is known about how effectively sexual processes of mountain plants function under the large temperature fluctuations at higher altitudes. The present study examines duration and thermal thresholds for progamic processes in six common plant species (Cerastium uniflorum, Gentianella germanica, Ranunculus alpestris, R. glacialis, Saxifraga bryoides, S. caesia) from different altitudinal zones in the European Alps. Whole plants were collected from natural sites shortly before anthesis and kept in a climate chamber until further processing. Flowers with receptive stigmas were hand-pollinated with allopollen and exposed to controlled temperatures between -2 and 40 °C. Pollen performance (adhesion to the stigma, germination, tube growth, fertilisation) was quantitatively analysed, using the aniline blue fluorescence method. Pollen adhesion was possible from -2 to 40 °C. Pollen germination and tube growth occurred from around 0 to 35 °C in most species. Fertilisation was observed from 5 to 30-32 °C (0-35 °C in G. germanica). The progamic phase was shortest in G. germanica (2 h at 30 °C, 12 h at 5 °C, 24 h at 0 °C), followed by R. glacialis (first fertilisation after 2 h at 30 °C, 18 h at 5 °C). In the remaining species, first fertilisation usually occurred after 4-6 h at 30 °C and after 24-30 h at 5 °C. Thus, mountain plants show remarkably flexible pollen performance over a wide temperature range and a short progamic phase, which may be essential for successful reproduction in the stochastic high-mountain climate.

Survival types of high mountain plants under extreme temperatures

Extreme temperatures are a main factor limiting plant growth in high mountain habitats. During winter, the risk of frost damage is highest at windblown and often snow-free sites. During summer, actively growing plants are particularly endangered by episodic cold spells, but also by short-term overheating. The current review gives an overview of extreme temperatures in the European Alps and observations of temperature damage on plants in their natural habitats. Furthermore, seasonal time courses of frost and heat resistance derived from laboratory tests on different plant growth forms are presented. Study species were the cushion plants Silene acaulis, Minuartia sedoides, Saxifraga oppositifolia and Carex firma collected on wind-exposed ridges; the rosette plant Soldanella alpina collected on snow-protected sites, and three Sempervivum species collected in xerothermic habitats. The temperature resistance of leaves, stems, rhizomes and roots were tested in two annual time courses. Frost treatments were conducted in controlled freezers by rapid cooling (10 K h −1, for current resistance) as well as by stepwise cooling (1–3 K h −1, for hardening capacity). Heat treatments followed a standardised procedure by exposing samples to heat for 30 min in hot water baths. The damage was visually estimated using the topographic tetrazolium test. During winter, cushion plants from exposed sites were fully hardened (LT 50 below −70 °C). Rosette plants, which are protected by a constant snow cover, survived temperatures of down to −25 °C. During the growing period, foliage and shoot tips of the investigated species were damaged at −5 to −8 °C (LT 50). Stems and rhizomes were only partially damaged by temperatures of −10 to −15 °C. Heat resistance in cushion plants generally reached 56–58 °C (LT 50), shoots and rhizomes of C. firma could reach 60 °C. Succulent plants like Sempervivum arachnoideum and S. tectorum from hot and dry microsites were the most heat resistant among the tested species (62–64 °C). The investigated mountain plant species showed highly varying resistance patterns, with variation in maximum hardening capability and seasonal time courses of resistance. Plants were capable of rapid adjustments to extreme temperatures, which is crucial for survival in a high mountain climate.

Characterisation of contemporary local climate change in the mountains of southwest Bulgaria

The Pirin Mountains in southwest Bulgaria spatially mark a transition between the Mediterranean and temperate climate zones. Therefore they are also particularly relevant for research on high mountain climate and the effect of landscape transformation. Historical climate records gathered in the area have been researched, checked and statistically examined. The mountainous climate has been characterised and trends in the evolution of temperature and precipitation since 1931 have been outlined. There are objective evidences for an increasing annual mean temperature, longer vegetative periods and local droughts in spring and autumn. Significant changes also appear in climatic threshold values such as the number of frost change days. This last parameter is very important for the sustainability of mountainous ecosystems.

Asthmatherapie im Hochgebirgsklima

Sojourns in the high mountains have been recommended to patients with asthma for many decades. It is the aim of this contribution to summarise the published studies about the effects of a stay at > 1500 m above sea level on asthmatic patients. These data from 428 adolescent and adult patients indicate an improvement of asthma symptoms and lung function during sojourns at high altitude. In many patients a reduction of the steroid therapy was achievable. Profound changes in the immune system have been demonstrated at high altitude, with a reduction of B- and T-helper cell activation. Total and mite-specific immunoglobulin E antibodies decrease significantly during longer sojourns. These changes are associated with a reduction of airway inflammation (e. g., reduction of eosinophil activation, NO exhalation and bronchial hyper-responsiveness). The fact that also patients with non-allergic asthma demonstrate a reduction of their airway inflammation at high altitude suggests that the high altitude climate has beneficial effects on asthma beyond the effects of allergen avoidance. High UV exposure and low humidity could be important additional factors, to explain the reductions in asthma severity in the high mountain climate. Larger controlled studies should be performed to prove the positive effects of the high altitude climate on asthma.

Metabolic processes sustaining the reviviscence of lichen Xanthoria elegans (Link) in high mountain environments.

To survive in high mountain environments lichens must adapt themselves to alternating periods of desiccation and hydration. Respiration and photosynthesis of the foliaceous lichen, Xanthoria elegans, in the dehydrated state were below the threshold of CO2-detection by infrared gas analysis. Following hydration, respiration totally recovered within seconds and photosynthesis within minutes. In order to identify metabolic processes that may contribute to the quick and efficient reactivation of lichen physiological processes, we analysed the metabolite profile of lichen thalli step by step during hydration/dehydration cycles, using 31P- and 13C-NMR. It appeared that the recovery of respiration was prepared during dehydration by the accumulation of a reserve of gluconate 6-P (glcn-6-P) and by the preservation of nucleotide pools, whereas glycolytic and photosynthetic intermediates like glucose 6-P and ribulose 1,5-diphosphate were absent. The large pools of polyols present in both X. elegans photo- and mycobiont are likely to contribute to the protection of cell constituents like nucleotides, proteins, and membrane lipids, and to preserve the integrity of intracellular structures during desiccation. Our data indicate that glcn-6-P accumulated due to activation of the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway, in response to a need for reducing power (NADPH) during the dehydration-triggered down-regulation of cell metabolism. On the contrary, glcn-6-P was metabolised immediately after hydration, supplying respiration with substrates during the replenishment of pools of glycolytic and photosynthetic intermediates. Finally, the high net photosynthetic activity of wet X. elegans thalli at low temperature may help this alpine lichen to take advantage of brief hydration opportunities such as ice melting, thus favouring its growth in harsh high mountain climates.

The climatologic significance of topography, altitude and region in high mountains – A survey of oceanic-continental differentiations of the Scandes

Within the discussion of climate change (HOUGHTON et al. 1990; OSTENDORF et al. 1999; WALTHER et al. 2002) the sensitive high mountain ecosystems could act as indicators for ecosystem response to global warming (BENISTON a. INNES 1998; ELIASSEN a. GRAMMELTVEDT 1990). This may induce a change of species distribution and biodiversity in high mountain landscapes (CALLAGHAN et al. 1993; CHAPIN et al. 2000) and finally lead to a replacement of alpine by sub-alpine ecosystems (AAS a. FAARLUND 1995; CRAMER 1997), respectively. To understand possible mountain ecosystem response to global warming, the climate system itself must be analysed at different spatio-temporal scales (ACIA 2004). High mountain climate is most decisively differentiated by topography (BARRY 1992; BECKER a. BUGMANN 1997). On a broad scale, superior circulation systems are modified by means of mountain chains located within the climate zones (FORLAND et al. 2000; RUMMUKAINEN et al. 2001). As such, the Scandes mountain chain stretching orthogonally to the westerlies is clearly differentiated into most oceanic and continental regions over a relatively short distance (MOEN 1999). Since most official meteorological stations are located J. Loffler, R. Pape, D. Wundram: The climatologic significance of topography, altitude and region in high mountains 15

The Black Tent in Its Easternmost Distribution: The Case of the Tibetan Plateau

Black tents serve as mobile housing for a majority of the nomadic groups in a belt that stretches from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to the eastern Tibetan Plateau. The existence of the black tent in its easternmost distribution has rarely been discussed in detail. In most regions, the requirements of the tent are determined by hot, arid climatic conditions, whereas an arid high mountain climate predominates on the Tibetan Plateau. The eastern part receives precipitation of over 500 mm annually. This raises questions about how Tibetan nomads have adapted the black tent to their specific needs and to environmental conditions. Using examples from a region in the eastern Tibetan Plateau, these questions are examined through descriptions of tent variations, construction, interior, choice of location for pitching the tent, and the strategies of tent dwellers to improve protection from cold and rain.

High-mountain climate therapy for skin diseases and allergies-- mode of action, therapeutic results, and immunologic effects

Dermatological-allergologic climatotherapy is interpreted as a therapy within a specific climate with proven therapeutic benefits, immediate and longterm. Intensive classical dermatological in-patient therapy is combined with specific climatic effects. Primarily, the climate of the high mountains (1560 m) and of the North Sea islands is of proven efficacy for dermatoses and allergic diseases such as atopic dermatitis (neurodermatitis), eczema, psoriasis, T-cell lymphoma, bronchial asthma. Specialized therapeutic utilities exist. Directly influencing climatic factors such as insolation, thermic-hygric and aerosol conditions without or with diminished allergic potency and nonspecific stimulating climate factors change immune functions and effect stabilization. The therapeutic immediate and longterm efficacy of the high mountain climate is proven by excellent follow-up results. Its superiority to the dermatological therapy applied at home is evident. Measurement and analysis of climate efficacy has however proven difficult because of its complexity. The findings of several recent clinical and biochemical studies are presented.

Brazilian Páramos II. Macro‐ and mesoclimate of the campos de altitude and affinities with high mountain climates of the tropical Andes and Costa Rica

Summary Aim This paper presents a basic analysis of the macro‐ and mesoclimate of the Brazilian campos de altitude, a series of cool–humid, mountaintop grasslands in southeastern Brazil, and compares results with data from other tropical as well as temperate alpine sites. Location Beginning at altitudes of 1800–2000 m, the campos de altitude are found atop the highest summits of the main ranges of the southeastern Brazilian Highlands, between the states of Santa Catarina and Minas Gerais/Espírito Santo. Methods Macro‐ and mesoclimatic parameters for the campos de altitude are derived from both original data and previously reported results. Parameters include approximate radiation budgets, temperature lapse rates, seasonal and diurnal patterns in temperature, occurrence of frost, elevational gradients in precipitation, and interannual and seasonal patterns in precipitation. Using multivariate techniques and simple numerical contrasts, the climate of the campos de altitude is compared to climates of other tropical as well as temperate alpine sites. Results With respect to patterns of seasonality and the marked influence of polar frontal activity, the macroclimate of the campos de altitude is typically tropical‐marginal. However, in reference to actual temperature and precipitation values, the length and profundity of the dry season, average humidities and cloudiness, the climate of the campus de altitude more closely corresponds to that of more inner‐tropical systems. These commonalities are best developed with respect to páramo climates of the northern Andes and, especially, Costa Rica. Main conclusions Their very different latitudinal and geographic positions notwith‐ standing, the campos de altitude and high mountain formations of the N. Andean and Central American Cordillera show clear macroclimatic congruities. In these congruities reside both the environmental basis for strong Andean–southeast Brazilian biogeographic connections, and the context within which evolutionary and ecological parallelisms have developed in the biota of these two widely separate neotropical mountain systems.

Prediction of Vegetation Patterns at the Limits of Plant Life: A New View of the Alpine-Nival Ecotone

The distribution pattern of individual plant species, as well as of plant communities, at the transition between the alpine and the nival environment (= alpine-nival ecotone) is likely to be drastically affected by climate change. Currently, the best way to explore the vegetation structure and to detect possible changes is the application of spatial modeling to predict vegetation patterns over larger areas combined with dynamic modeling techniques. Schrankogel in Tyrol, Austria, was selected as a typical high alpine mountain to establish and test such models. As a first step, the predictive model for the spatial pattern of species and plant communities is presented here. Direct and indirect gradient analyses (CA, CCA) were combined with GIS-techniques based on a fine-grained Digital Elevation Model (DEM; pixel size: 1 m2). Approximately 1000 field samples (vascular plant species and cover within 1 m2 squares) distributed over the alpine-nival ecotone of the mountain were taken as the vegetation data input. Topographic descriptors were derived from the DEM as habitat characters of those samples. Using the correlations between vegetation samples and habitat characters, single plant species as well as community distribution could be predicted for the pixels of the whole model area (the studied ecotone area contained a total of 650,000 pixels) for which habitat characters were known from the DEM. Distinct distribution patterns at different spatial resolutions appeared for individual species, species groups, and communities in relation to the relief. Descriptors of relief curvature and roughness explained more of the variability than “classical” terrain attributes, such as elevation or exposure. Nevertheless, the altitudinal gradient was clearly reflected by the CCA ordination. As species richness of vascular plants was recorded in each sample plot, biodiversity distribution patterns could be modeled. These patterns showed the general trend of decline of biodiversity with altitude, but with a maximum of species richness at the ecotone itself. Since the relief modifies the high mountain climate remarkably, this differentiated relief dependency of vegetation supports the view that this type of environments will be affected significantly by climate change.

Accumulation of sulphur in and on scots pine needles in the subarctic

Total S concentrations of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) needles studied in the Finnish subarctic (66–70°N, 24–30°E) in 1990/1992 ranged from 573 to 1153 μg g−1 Levels were found to be ∼ 900 μg g−1 (i.e. 1.3–1.8 times the ‘normal’ level of 500–700 μg g−1 in areas where the long-term ambient SO2 concentration was ∼ 2–5 μg m−3, particulate SO 4 2- ∼ 2 μg m−3 and total S deposition ≈ 0.5 g m−2. A statistically significant increase in needle total S concentrations was found towards the east, i.e. towards the smelters of the Kola Peninsula in Russia, which emit SO2. The increase in needle total S concentrations to over 900 μg g−1 close to the Russian border is thought to result mainly from exposure to high short-term SO2 concentrations. The results also suggest that wintertime S deposition may have an impact on the needle total S content. It is suggested that the UNECE long-term critical level of 15 μg SO2 m−3 for forestry in boreal and high mountain climates in Europe is too high for the pine forests in the extreme north, where the proportion of dry-deposited S may be 60–80%.

Progress and prospect for research on mountain glaciers in China

In the past decade the interest of many scientists worldwide has been attracted to the central Asian area of China. A number of gaps in scientific knowledge have been closed, and many significant discoveries have been made.The most important achievement is the ice-core research by the Sino-American Joint Expedition to the Dunde Ice Cap, Qilian mountains, that established a record of ten thousand years of climatic and environmental change. In addition, in cooperation with scientists from Japan, Switzerland and the Soviet Union, studies have been carried out focusing on glacier mass balance, heat balance, the mechanism and formation of glacial runoff, and high mountain climates. This work has been done in the Tien Shan, west Kunlun, Tanggula, Nyaingentanglha and Gongga mountains.In addition, through joint efforts of scientists from China, Nepal and Canada, important advances have also been made in studies of glacier lake outburst floods and debris flows in the Karakoram and the Himalayas, and in mountainous areas in southeastern Tibet.The glaciers in central Asia will continue to be an important research area for glaciologists from all over the world in the coming decade.

Progress and prospect for research on mountain glaciers in China

In the past decade the interest of many scientists worldwide has been attracted to the central Asian area of China. A number of gaps in scientific knowledge have been closed, and many significant discoveries have been made.The most important achievement is the ice-core research by the Sino-American Joint Expedition to the Dunde Ice Cap, Qilian mountains, that established a record of ten thousand years of climatic and environmental change. In addition, in cooperation with scientists from Japan, Switzerland and the Soviet Union, studies have been carried out focusing on glacier mass balance, heat balance, the mechanism and formation of glacial runoff, and high mountain climates. This work has been done in the Tien Shan, west Kunlun, Tanggula, Nyaingentanglha and Gongga mountains.In addition, through joint efforts of scientists from China, Nepal and Canada, important advances have also been made in studies of glacier lake outburst floods and debris flows in the Karakoram and the Himalayas, and in mountainous areas in southeastern Tibet.The glaciers in central Asia will continue to be an important research area for glaciologists from all over the world in the coming decade.