High Medieval Period Research Articles

Diachronic Height Changes in Europe From the Mesolithic to the Present: Exploring Possible Causes and Regional Specificities.

A meta-analysis of diachronic changes in average height across Europe from the Mesolithic to the present, based on a broad range of literature sources. The analysis of chronological height variability was based on skeletal remains (from the Mesolithic to the 19th century), from which height was reconstructed, and on data from living individuals measured from the late 19th to the early 21st century. In total, data from 73 skeletal series and 342 groups of modern populations, primarily from Eastern Europe, were analyzed. A regression analysis was performed using R to describe the patterns of variability. The findings indicate that height decreases during the Neolithic and remains relatively stable until the Medieval period. A decline in average height is observed during the High Medieval period. The Early Modern period marks a transition to the 20th century, during which there is a consistent increase in average height, most pronounced until the 1980s, after which the rate of increase slows slightly into the early 21st century. Temporal height variability in the European part of Russia shows regional differences. The results suggest a wave-like pattern of trans-epochal changes in the somatic status of populations over an extended period, likely driven by various socioeconomic factors that dominated in different historical periods: the transition to agriculture, urbanization, political systems, industrial revolutions, and significant improvements in quality of life. Diachronic changes in height exhibit regional specificities, reflected in the variability of rates and magnitudes of secular gains across different regions and time periods.

The Roman to medieval landscape transformation at Aardenburg (southern The Netherlands) based on palynology and diatom analysis

The region of Bruges (Flanders, Belgium) was an economic and cultural centre during the Late Middle Ages because it was connected to the North Sea via a large tidal inlet called the Zwin, along which smaller towns developed. One of these towns was Aardenburg (Zeeland, The Netherlands), which developed from a Roman castellum to become one of the important medieval towns in the hinterland of Bruges. Unfortunately, archaeological, historical and (palaeo)environmental data about the Roman to medieval evolution of the Zwin area are scarce. However, the continuous occupation of Aardenburg during the first millennium AD and its location on a Pleistocene sand ridge bordering the coastal plain provide a unique opportunity to investigate the natural dynamics of the coastal evolution and the interplay with the human impact that shaped the Zwin region before its heyday. The variable character of the depositional environments on the dynamic coastal plain makes local environmental studies essential for understanding larger patterns, which were previously reduced to a simplistic outdated model over the entire region. Palynological and diatom assemblages of two sequences in Aardenburg allow the reconstruction of the terrestrial and aquatic palaeoenvironments from the Middle Holocene to the high Middle Ages. The results reveal landscape evolution in relation to woodlands, peat bogs, coastal environments and human presence, consistent with previous regional landscape evolution. A distinct increase in marine influence during the Roman and early medieval periods, when human activities played a significant role, was followed by an increase in inland indicators from the high medieval period onwards. This evolution is in accordance with the expansion of the town and the reclamation of the coastal landscape as it evolved to become a cultural centre in the Late Middle Ages.

The effects of cultural networks on migration among Early and High Medieval populations in Central Europe based on dental phenotypic data

AbstractThroughout the region of Central Europe, population movements have transcended political boundaries throughout history. The Early (6th to 11th centuries AD) and High (11th to 14th centuries AD) Medieval periods were times of constantly shifting cultural relationships, as well as climatic fluctuations. Limited archeological and historic records for the region often focus on the broader cultural processes of the time, and to a large degree, on elites. Very little work has focused on population movement, particularly across cultural boundaries. Here we examine the potential effects of cultural processes on the movement and subsequent genetic exchange among the people throughout the region. We compare biological, cultural, geographic, and temporal relationships using biological distance analysis and model matrix comparison. To examine population structures, we combine dental morphological and metric data derived from human skeletal remains representing Early and High Medieval groups. Our results support the important influence of cultural processes on migration and population structures among Early and High Medieval groups. Distances based on the cultural complexity model we employ here is significantly correlated with biological distances (p = 0.028), while temporal period (p = 0.099), geographic proximity (p = 0.104), and shared origin (p = 0.193) models are not significant. Although our model is limited in the complex breadth of cultural processes during the Early and High Medieval period, we assert that these processes played an important role in population movement. Finally, we support an inter‐regional approach to examining population interactions among Central European and neighboring areas.

Lunar eclipses illuminate timing and climate impact of medieval volcanism

Explosive volcanism is a key contributor to climate variability on interannual to centennial timescales1. Understanding the far-field societal impacts of eruption-forced climatic changes requires firm event chronologies and reliable estimates of both the burden and altitude (that is, tropospheric versus stratospheric) of volcanic sulfate aerosol2,3. However, despite progress in ice-core dating, uncertainties remain in these key factors4. This particularly hinders investigation of the role of large, temporally clustered eruptions during the High Medieval Period (HMP, 1100–1300 ce), which have been implicated in the transition from the warm Medieval Climate Anomaly to the Little Ice Age5. Here we shed new light on explosive volcanism during the HMP, drawing on analysis of contemporary reports of total lunar eclipses, from which we derive a time series of stratospheric turbidity. By combining this new record with aerosol model simulations and tree-ring-based climate proxies, we refine the estimated dates of five notable eruptions and associate each with stratospheric aerosol veils. Five further eruptions, including one responsible for high sulfur deposition over Greenland circa 1182 ce, affected only the troposphere and had muted climatic consequences. Our findings offer support for further investigation of the decadal-scale to centennial-scale climate response to volcanic eruptions.

How cranial surgery was performed in Italy during the centuries after the Roman Empire but before the rise of the medieval universities: Integrating paleopathology and medical history

How cranial surgery was performed in Italy during the centuries after the Roman Empire but before the rise of the medieval universities: Integrating paleopathology and medical history

Ever Closer Union? Unification, Difference, and the ‘Making of Europe’, c.950–c.1350

Abstract The article explores the relationships between the universal and the particular in high medieval Europe. It notes the enduring appeal of views of the period as being marked by an increasingly unified ‘European’ culture and explains their modern salience. It observes the parallel phenomena of division and plurality in the period and the prominence of themes of conflict and fragmentation in the following centuries. The purpose of the article is to re-examine the relationship between these seemingly contradictory forms and developments. Its aim is to illuminate and explain the strengthening elements of division and disunity discernible in Europe between the eleventh and the fourteenth centuries in terms of the new, over-arching cultural unities which characterise the same high medieval period. Taking as its basis the model of ‘Europeanisation’ developed by Robert Bartlett, it complicates his picture of advancing homogenisation by demonstrating the ways in which new, encompassing, integrative cultural forms promoted dis-integration and encouraged the articulation and reproduction of difference. The processes of change through which high medieval unities were created were themselves divisive, while strengthened institutions, particularly the Church and papacy, fostered division and provided fora within which contending claims could be negotiated. New, widely disseminated media allowed difference to be more sharply articulated. The cosmopolitan elements in high medieval European culture, the article contends, bore within them the seed of the particular(istic), which ripened together with those same universalising currents. This dialectic of unity and plurality sheds a fresh light on the transition from the central to the later Middle Ages in Europe.

Sídliskové objekty z neskorej doby bronzovej, doby halštatskej a z vrcholného stredoveku v Ľuboticiach, okr. Prešov

The article presents results of rescue excavation that took place in Ľubotice, site Winklerovky in early 2020. Settlement features dated to the Late Bronze age, Hallsttatt period and High Medieval period were examined. The earliest phase of settlement which shows strong influence of the Lusatian culture dated to the Late Bronze Age (Ha B1–Ha B3 stage). Based on the findings this settlement was probably abandoned around the end of the Late Bronze Age. The site was later resettled in Hallsttatt period (Ha C/Ha D). Few High Medieval period features were identified as well. Those were dated to the 13th century.

The Flesh of Fasts and Feasts: A Study of the Monastic Diet in Theory and Practice (c. 1025–1525)

Abstract This article examines the monastic diet during the high and late medieval periods. The evolution of this central aspect of daily life gives us greater insight into contemplative monks’ increasing worldliness. Monks not only fell short of their forefathers’ ideals, but also of their own codes of behavior. Their diet gradually became more akin to that of noblemen than to that of their ancient brothers and sisters. Frugality and temperance all too often gave way to indulgence and debauchery. Days on which one should have expected to endure the austerity of fasting were sometimes more reminiscent of the lavishness of feasts. In addition to mead, merriment, and music, meat invaded the cloister.

Evidencing Human Occupation of a Small Island Through Ancient Glass: The Case of Ustica (Palermo, Italy)

AbstractThe subject of this study consists of 17 ancient glass fragments from the island of Ustica (Palermo, Italy) obtained from local museums. All the 17 glass fragments are stratigraphically decontextualized, as they were collected by archaeological surface surveys. Each fragment was analyzed by Electron Micro Probe Analyzer coupled with an Energy Dispersive X-Ray System (EMPA-EDS) and by Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) to obtain the composition of major, minor and trace elements. Surface analyses revealed the presence of corrosion layers in most of the glass fragments which was evident also in the chemical data. Nevertheless, reconstruction of the glassmaking processes and the approximate period of production was possible for almost all the glass fragments. Less than half of the examined fragments are attributable to recognizable typologies as unguentaria, beakers, bottles, and vases; all the other small fragments are typologically undetermined. Out of 17 fragments only one fragment is of HLLA composition possibly being produced in 17th–18th century AD, while all the others can be attributed to soda glass with different periods of production: natron glass from Roman and Early Medieval period, plant-ash glass from High or Late Medieval period with the exception of possible Byzantine glass from 6th century AD, and synthetic soda glasses typical of modern era. These data confirm the discontinuous habitation of the island from the Roman period as well as the import of glass objects to the island.

Bishops, war, and canon law

From around 1130 to 1240, Norway was troubled by a series of internal conflicts and succession disputes. In this article, I explore one element of Norwegian prelates’ conduct during this period which has received little attention: their involvement in military activities. By comparing how prelates are shown to behave during periods of military conflict in the kings’ sagas with the ideal mode of behaviour set out in canon law, instructional treatises, and papal letters, I explore the extent to which clerical involvement in military activities was considered acceptable in Norway across the high medieval period. I conclude that although it was considered ideal for clerics to eschew involvement in violent conflict, some direct participation in military activities was tacitly accepted within high medieval Norway. This role was limited, however, by the belief that the clergy should not shed blood or bear arms. Although there is some suggestion in sources for mid-13th-century Norway that prelates became less involved in military affairs across this period, there is little evidence that attitudes within Norway towards clerical participation in war had significantly shifted by the conclusion of the so-called ‘civil war’ period.

Painted Churches of Medieval Lebanon: an Overview

The modern country of Lebanon preserves an important medieval and post-medieval legacy of standing churches and Christian religious art. After their discovery by western scholars in the 19th century, the art of the churches only attracted limited scholarly attention until about 100 years later, when they began to be studied in detail. Now a variety of studies have appeared on the churches and their art, including several books (Nordiguian and Voisin 1999 and subsequent new editions; Cruikshank Dodd 2004; Immerzeel 2009; Zibawi 2009) and numerous articles in both print and online. This article seeks to provide an overview of the studies of these monuments, first discussing the origins of the study of these churches and the viewpoints of the different scholars who have approached the material, and then examining some Of the surviving monuments. The churches discussed here date to what can be most accurately termed as a high medieval period of the 12th-13th centuries AD, when Lebanon was under the rule of the Crusaders. Nevertheless, while the region was under Crusader control, there is a growing recognition that the monuments that were produced were local art that was influenced from a variety of sources. Post-Crusader material will not be discussed, although it should be noted that the country also possesses important Christian art from the subsequent periods. The article will not only examine the standing architecture, but also the wall paintings, which have been the subject of considerable attention on the part of scholars in recent years. Further, other Christian religious items that would have been found or still can be found in the churches, such as icons, will also be treated here, particularly as a number of scholars have related the different art forms to each other. It is by examining all forms of Christian art surviving in Lebanon from this period that we can come to a better understanding of how and why this material was produced, as well as how the studies of this material has evolved through time. It can also help provide new ideas for further research, in addition to the valuable work of documentation, restoration, and interpretation that has been occurring since the end of the 20th century.

Post-medieval burial customs in Germany – an archaeological perspective on materiality and spatiality

ABSTRACTPeople generally behave conservatively when dealing with their deceased as very few alterations in the funerary customs are detectable over centuries or even millennia. There were certain periods, however, when this was different and more rapid and radical changes occurred. There is, for example, a marked changeover in mortuary practices in central Europe during the transition from the Middle Ages to the early modern era following the years around 1500. Another major shift becomes visible in the 18th and 19th centuries. This paper serves as an overview concerning the archaeological research on the changing burial customs from the high medieval period until the early 20th century in Germany. Only a few excursions across the modern state borders into the wider German-speaking area are made. The main focus lies on the later post-medieval times with a special emphasis on the different beliefs in Catholic and Protestant areas and their archaeological manifestation. Of course, explanations for the discovered changes will also be suggested. Graves were used as a means of symbolic communication between this world and the hereafter. Therefore changes in burial custom – such as the location of the cemeteries, the location of the individual graves, and their furnishing with graves goods – always express changes in living culture as well.

Celestial Spheres

Angels probably have bodies. There is no good evidence (biblical, philosophical, or historical) to argue against their bodiliness; there is an abundance of evidence (biblical, philosophical, historical) that makes the case for angelic bodies. After surveying biblical texts alleged to demonstrate angelic incorporeality, the discussion moves to examine patristic, medieval, and some modern figures on the subject. In short, before the High Medieval period belief in angelic bodies was the norm, and afterwards it is the exception. A brief foray into modern physics and higher spatial dimensions (termed “hyperspace”), coupled with an analogical use of Edwin Abbott’s Flatland, serves to explain the way in which appealing to higher-dimensional angelic bodies matches the record of angelic activity in the Bible remarkably well. This position also cuts through a historical equivocation on the question of angelic embodiment. Angels do have bodies, but they are bodies very unlike our own. They do not have bodies in any three-dimensional space we can observe, but are nevertheless embodied beings.

The Late Antique and Medieval settlement of Astura (Lazio, Italy). A synthesis of GIA investigations (2005-2014)

This article discusses the results of archaeological investigations carried out by the Pontine Region Project (PRP) near the site of Astura in the coastal part of the Pontine Region. In the period 2005-2008 a long section, exposed by marine erosion, was drawn and sampled. Subsequently, in the years 2012 and 2013 small-scale geophysical prospections were carried out to assess the preservation of structural remains at the site. The investigation yielded evidence belonging to two main occupational phases. A large quantity – and wide variety – of Late Antique materials indicate the presence of a substantial settlement, that is alluded to in historical and textual evidence as well. For the High Medieval period (12th century AD) evidence was obtained for the production of pottery (ceramica a bande rosse) and lime, possibly forming part of the economic basis of a larger (private or ecclesiastical) estate.

Early and High Medieval (c. 650 AD–1250 AD) Charcoal Production and Its Impact on Woodland Composition in the Northwest-European Lowland: A Study of Charcoal Pit Kilns from Sterrebeek (Central Belgium)

ABSTRACT The study of charcoal production pits (pit kilns), excavated in central Belgium, provides information on Early and High Medieval woodland dynamics and human impact on the forest composition in the Northwest-European Lowland. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal recovered from the kilns demonstrates two different phases of charcoal production, one during the Early Medieval period (c. 650 AD–950 AD) and one during the High Medieval period (c. 1040 AD–1260 AD). Charcoal identification shows that the Early Medieval kilns are dominated by beech (Fagus sylvatica) while the younger kilns are dominated by oak (Quercus sp.), indicating a shift in woodland composition. This shift is likely to be a consequence of the earliest charcoal production activities, which resulted in the degradation of the primeval beech-dominated forest to a secondary forest dominated by oak, and intermixed with other more light-demanding taxa.

Pollen from beeswax as a geographical origin indicator of the medieval Evangelistary cover ‘Pace di Chiavenna’, Northern Italy

In this research palynology has been applied to the study of an adhesive beeswax compound found beneath one enamel of the medieval Evangelistary cover ‘Pace di Chiavenna’, ca 1000 years old and preserved for the last five centuries in the Treasury of the Collegiate Church of Chiavenna (Northern Italy). The purpose of this study was to test whether it is possible to determine the geographical area of wax collection and of the origin of the wooden support of the artefact, using the pollen imprint of plants and their related spatial ranges. Palynological analyses allowed the identification of 184 pollen grains belonging to 33 taxa. The reconstructed vegetation represents dry to humid meadows and pastures (e.g. Artemisia, Apiaceae, Campanula type, Poacaeae, Thalictrum, Asteroideae), wet areas (e.g. Alnus glutinosa type, Salix), woods or forests (e.g. Acer, Tilia, Picea, Castanea), shrublands (Ericaceae, Corylus) and arable fields or gardens (e.g. Cerealia type, Urtica, Plantago major). The Evangelistary cover has been attributed to the Ottonian art, developed especially in Germany, Eastern France and Northern Italy. On the basis of the palynological evidence from the beeswax, we can restrict the provenance area. A Northern Italian or Southern Prealpine origin seems likely since Castanea sativa was much more frequent south than north of the Alps. This geographic origin is corroborated by the material used for the support, made of Juglans regia (walnut), frequently planted in the region at that time. Moreover, the technique used to produce the wooden plate was widespread in Italy during the High Medieval period. The palynological evidence points to a very open, deeply human-affected environment, possibly around a city or a larger village in which the apiary was located. Inferences of this nature cannot be provided by other approaches such as wood or leather analyses; we thus conclude that palynology can provide unique insights into the origin of cultural treasures.

Ancient genomes reveal a high diversity of Mycobacterium leprae in medieval Europe.

Studying ancient DNA allows us to retrace the evolutionary history of human pathogens, such as Mycobacterium leprae, the main causative agent of leprosy. Leprosy is one of the oldest recorded and most stigmatizing diseases in human history. The disease was prevalent in Europe until the 16th century and is still endemic in many countries with over 200,000 new cases reported annually. Previous worldwide studies on modern and European medieval M. leprae genomes revealed that they cluster into several distinct branches of which two were present in medieval Northwestern Europe. In this study, we analyzed 10 new medieval M. leprae genomes including the so far oldest M. leprae genome from one of the earliest known cases of leprosy in the United Kingdom—a skeleton from the Great Chesterford cemetery with a calibrated age of 415–545 C.E. This dataset provides a genetic time transect of M. leprae diversity in Europe over the past 1500 years. We find M. leprae strains from four distinct branches to be present in the Early Medieval Period, and strains from three different branches were detected within a single cemetery from the High Medieval Period. Altogether these findings suggest a higher genetic diversity of M. leprae strains in medieval Europe at various time points than previously assumed. The resulting more complex picture of the past phylogeography of leprosy in Europe impacts current phylogeographical models of M. leprae dissemination. It suggests alternative models for the past spread of leprosy such as a wide spread prevalence of strains from different branches in Eurasia already in Antiquity or maybe even an origin in Western Eurasia. Furthermore, these results highlight how studying ancient M. leprae strains improves understanding the history of leprosy worldwide.

The Ebb and Flow of Copper and Iron Smelting in the South Caucasus

AbstractThe Eastern Black Sea region of the South Caucasus contains an extremely rich record of metallurgical remains that is poorly known outside of the former Soviet Union. Large numbers of relatively small smelting sites dot the foothill regions, forming a dispersed, yet large-scale metallurgical landscape. New fieldwork in the region has followed up on earlier Soviet period research, relocating and reanalyzing previously known sites and identifying new ones. This paper presents a series of 33 radiocarbon (14C) dates from copper and iron smelting sites in this region. Dates from copper smelting sites suggest that copper smelting occurred over a shorter and more intense period than previously thought, between about 1300 and 800 BC. Dates from newly discovered iron smelting sites place these activities in two episodes during the Classical-Hellenistic period (ca. 500–200 BC) and the High Medieval period (ca. AD 1050–1400). The dramatic expansion in bronze production immediately prior to the adoption of iron mirrors patterns in other regions of Europe and the Near East, and has implications for understanding the economic contexts in which iron emerged. While the new dates from iron smelting sites provide only an initial outline of the iron production chronology in the region, they represent an important step for resolving outstanding issues from previous investigations.

3D GEOMATICS TECHNIQUES FOR AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO CULTURAL HERITAGE KNOWLEDGE: THE CASE OF SAN MICHELE IN ACERBOLI’S CHURCH IN SANTARCANGELO DI ROMAGNA

Abstract. The modern Geomatics techniques, such as Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS) and multi-view Structure from Motion (SfM), are gaining more and more interest in the Cultural Heritage field. All the data acquired with these technologies could be stored and managed together with other information in a Historical Building Information Model (HBIM). In this paper, it will be shown the case study of the San Michele in Acerboli’s church, located in Santarcangelo di Romagna, Italy. This church, dated about the 6th century A.D., represents a high relevant Romanic building of the high Medieval period. The building presents an irregular square plan with a different length of the lateral brick walls and a consequential oblique one in correspondence of the apse. Nevertheless, the different lengths of the lateral brick walls are balanced thanks to the irregular spaces between the windows. Different changes occurred during the centuries, such as the closing of the seven main doors and the building of the bell tower, in the 11th century A.D., which is nowadays the main entrance of the church. An integrated survey was realized, covering the exterior and the interior. The final 3D model represents a valid support not only for documentation, but also to maintain and manage in an integrate approach the available knowledge of this Cultural Heritage site, developing a HBIM system in which all the mentioned historical, geometrical, material matters are collected.

Human–Landscape Interactions during the Early and High Medieval Period in Central Spain Based on New Estimates of Sediment Yield from the Melque Agricultural Complex

An agrosilvopastoral system and millennium of human occupation make Santa Maria de Melque an important archaeological site in Europe. Previous archaeological work mainly focused on ceramics and wooden structural elements of a church and anthracological, palynological, and paleocarpological analyses of sediments around a rural monastery. In this paper, we extend the geoarchaeological work to dams that were constructed nearby, applying innovative techniques such as optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating and seismic refraction to help understand human–landscape interactions. Our OSL dating of dams and reservoir sediments provide a first detailed chronological framework for historical water storage in Central Spain. In Melque, the four dams were built consecutively during phases of Christian occupation, thereby assuring water availability to support agrosilvopastoral activities. The maximum splendor of the rural complex occurred during Phase III (Christian occupation, 12th–16th centuries A.D.). Dam construction was an integral part of the agricultural production system, and the reservoirs were effective as water harvesting systems in support of irrigated agriculture from the 7th to 16th centuries A.D. during the Early and High Medieval occupation of the site.