High Levels Of Total Dissolved Solids Research Articles

GROUND WATER QUALITY AND ITS IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH IN DUNGARPUR DISTRICT OF RAJASTHAN, INDIA

Abstract. Dungarpur, one of the most backward districts of India, is a predominantly tribal region of Rajasthan state. Ground water is the major source of drinking water in the region. High concentrations of Fluoride (F) and Iron (Fe) have been reported in the region which poses high risk of rampant water-borne diseases. This study evaluates the ground water quality for drinking purpose in terms of 10 hydro-geochemical and two biological parameters in context of causative factors like land use and geology of the region. The occurrence of water borne diseases in resident population has been examined in association with quality of drinking water and priority areas for policy intervention have been identified. Water samples have been collected from 173 drinking water sources and 346 households consuming water from the selected sources have been surveyed for prevalence of water borne diseases. Water quality surfaces have been mapped in terms of F, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Hardness, Fe, alkalinity, Faecal Coliform (FC), E. Coli, and Water Quality Index (WQI) computed on the basis of 10 geochemical parameters, using Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) method. Results reveal that the north-eastern part comprising Aspur, Sabla and part of Sagwara tehsils predominantly has ‘very poor’ to ‘unsuitable’ water quality. The western part has excessive faecal contamination. Entire district has high levels of TDS and hardness, while excessive Fe and F occur in specific regions. Disease incidence closely corresponds to the geochemical and microbial composition of water. Higher values of WQI correspond with occurrence of Phyllites and Mica Schists.

Comments: Water Pressures

Drought conditions rated as “moderate or worse” affected 31 US states as of 8 June, as reported by the US National Integrated Drought Information System. Particularly dry are the West and Upper Midwest regions, relevant to the Permian and Bakken, respectively. While not a record-level drought, attention is turning to the Missouri River in North Dakota where streamflow levels are at low levels for this time of year—about 48% below the seasonal average. About 96% of the water in North Dakota’s rivers and streams flows through it, making it one of the main sources of fresh water for oil and gas production in the Bakken. In the extreme drought, water restrictions could come into play. Throughout the industry, recycling and reuse of frac and produced water have been studied, and where the chemical makeup of the frac or produced water is suitable for optimal and economical treatment, it has been implemented. However, Bakken production is typically associated with 1.0 to 1.5 bbl of produced water per barrel of oil (a water cut of approximately 50%). It is highly saline with total dissolved solids (TDS) ranging up to 350,000 mg/L (seawater is about 35,000, or 10 times less salty than Bakken brine). Treatment options for such high TDS levels are limited and often cost-prohibitive. The Bakken’s produced water volumes increased fourfold since 2008 to about 740 million bbl per year due to increasing volumes per well and increasing water cut. Produced water disposal volumes in the same period increased fivefold to about 680 million bbl per year. More than 95% of saltwater disposal (SWD) targets the Inyan Kara Formation, the lowermost sandstone interval of the Dakota Group. The increase in SWD volumes has resulted in localized areas of high pressure in the formation in geographic regions associated with high levels of oil and gas activity. This increased pressure affects the economics and risk associated with the drilling of new wells that now require additional intermediate casing strings (“Dakota Strings”), adding a cost of $300,000 to $700,000 per well. About 200 wells to date have been identified with additional casing strings, according to the Energy & Environmental Research Center (EERC). Faced with the challenges of high salinity in recycling/reuse of produced water, constraints on SWD injection, freshwater limitations, pressure regulation, and inflated drilling costs, a 2-year project was begun in January 2020 which may hold promise for greater use of the produced water. Participants in the $1.3-million project are EERC, Nuverra Environmental Solutions, and the US Department of Energy.

Effects of Salt Harvesting on Ground Water Quality in Gongoni Ward, Kilifi County, Kenya

Aims: To determine the effects of salt harvesting on ground water quality in Gongoni ward, Kilifi County.
 Study Design: The study design was purposive where sampling points were deliberately chosen.
 Place and Duration of Study: The study was carried out in Gongoni ward and its environs in Kilifi County from May 2015 to July 2015.
 Methodology: Sixteen sampling points were selected within the study area and sampling was done twice between May and July 2015. The water samples collected were analyzed for sodium (Na+), Chlorides (Cl-), Fluorides, (F-) Calcium (Ca2+), alkalinity, acidity (pH), E. coli, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and Salinity as NaCl in the Government Chemist laboratories in Mombasa. The collected data was analyzed using SPSS and Microsoft Office Excel.
 Results: The ground water sources in Gongoni ward registered high levels of key parameters (TDS, Salinity, Chloride, and Sodium) than the adjacent areas of Mambrui, Ngomeni and selected secondary data from Mombasa County wells where no salt harvesting occurs. Gongoni water sources had a mean TDS of 1969.00mg/L and the adjacent area shad TDS of 1050.00 mg/L. The level of E. coli and total coliform were above the Kenyan and WHO permissible limit of 0 MPN/100ml for treated water and 10 MPN/100mls for untreated water.
 Conclusion: Despite the elevated concentration levels of chemical parameters from Gongoni ward water sources, the differences are not statistically significant when compared to the adjacent areas of Mambrui and Ngomeni.
 Recommendations: The water from sources with high levels of TDS and salinity should be pre-treated to make the water more suitable for human use. Those with high coliform and E. coli bacteria should be regularly treated using the appropriate disinfection methods. It is recommended that all projects on salt harvesting should be subjected to an Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) before implementation as provided by the Kenya Environmental Management and Coordination Act of 1999.

Assessing the nature of seasonal meteorological change in people’s dependency on wetland: a case study of Bhagirathi–Hooghly floodplain system

Wetland acts as a biological supermarket and helps to determine people’s lives, livelihoods and needs. In third world countries like India, wetlands are suppressed by over populated surroundings. Although the size, volume and depth of wetlands change due to the whims of the weather, and water pollution and sedimentation are caused by various human activities, people still use wetlands as a means of rice and fish production. This article discusses the continuous decaying of wetlands in the floodplain region of the Bhagirathi–Hooghly river and its impact on human dependency on wetlands. The location of the continuous siltation of the wetlands is known with the help of bathymetry which proves that the wetlands are getting more and more decayed. Agricultural runoff and sewerage from adjacent farmland also continue to pollute the wetlands' environment, with high levels of TDS (total dissolved solids) and Cl2+ (chloride). The result shows that rice and fish production in these decayed wetlands is continuously increasing with seasonal water budget scenario. Comparing economic production with water budgets through SK (seasonal Kendall) test and ARMA (autoregressive moving average process), trend analysis shows the growing demand of the people has made the position of the wetlands miserable, but the economic aspect of the people has benefited. Dredging, public awareness, water pollution prevention and sustainable use of wetlands can be considered as the only way to restore the decayed wetlands to their glory.

Assessment of the HablehRood river water quality for drinking and irrigation purposes in Garmsar, Iran

Rivers are one of the most valuable sources of water for drinking, agricultural, and industrial use. In the presented study, water samples collected from different rivers of HablehRood from October Within 23, 2009, to the end of September 2014, were analyzed to assess qualitative analysis and suitability for domestic and irrigation usage. The electrical conductivity (EC) of the river water was within the range of 750–5000 μmoh/cm, sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) Classification indicated that all samples were excellent and good range, sodium percentage (Na %) 20–80%, residual sodium carbonate (RSC) $${\mathrm{Na}}^{+}{\mathrm{Mg}}^{2+}$$ > $${\mathrm{Ca}}^{2+}$$ and $${\mathrm{Cl}}^{-}$$ > $${\mathrm{SO}}_{4}^{2-}$$ > $${\mathrm{HCO}}^{-}_{3}$$ . The water quality showed high EC and total dissolved solids (TDS) in all water samples, which reduce quality for livestock and drinking because of high TDS levels. Still, according to the Wilcox diagram is suitable for agriculture.

Nutritional Value of Apiaceae Seeds as Affected by 11 Species and 43 Cultivars

The fragmentary literature data on Apiaceae seed antioxidant potential elicited a comparative evaluation work of seed biochemical profile between 11 species and 43 cultivars grown in similar conditions: anise, lovage, fennel, coriander, caraway, parsley, celery, dill, carrot, parsnip and chervil. Among the different solvents, temperature and duration regimes applied, 70% EtOH, 80 °C and 1 h running showed the best extraction efficiency of antioxidants. Total antioxidant activity (AOA) decreased as follows: lovage > anise > parsley > celery > fennel = dill > coriander > caraway > parsnip > carrot > chervil. Lovage, anise and fennel demonstrated the highest levels of total phenolics (TP), AOA and potassium. A positive correlation was recorded between total dissolved solids (TDS) and K and between AOA and TP content (r = 0.86 and r = 0.79 respectively, at p < 0.001). Varietal differences in AOA and TP levels were much lower than those relevant to TDS, K and water soluble protein (WSP), while the highest differences were found for selenium (Se). Two parsley cultivars showed anomalously high Se content and four dill cultivars unusually high levels of TDS and potassium. A positive correlation arose between Se and WSP levels in parsley seeds (r = 0.85 at p < 0.05).

Comparison GIS-Based interpolation methods for mapping groundwater quality in the state of Qatar

Groundwater (GW) quality deterioration is one of the main water security issues in Qatar. GW in Qatar is over-exploited for agriculture activities that caused saltwater intrusion in the coastal areas and some inland GW. The selection of an appropriate interpolation method is crucial for producing a reliable map of spatial variability in environmental research and the decision-making process. In this study, 41 GW samples were used to produce interpolated maps and reveal the spatial variability of GW parameters namely: pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), major cations, and anions, and some trace elements, using spatial interpolated methods in geostatistical tool (ArcGIS Software). Multiple mapping methods were used to compare the current results with the national and international guidelines to give a relevant decision. Three different interpolated methods, namely inverse distance weighted interpolation (IDW), radial basis functions (RBFs), and simple Kriging (SK) were used to produce interpolated maps. Cross-validation was applied to assess the best-fit interpolation method. The result shows that the SK model was the optimum interpolated method for the most of the variable data. While the RBFs model was the best interpolation method for selenium and boron data. The IDW model was the best-interpolated method for sodium, TDS, SAR, and potassium data. The IDW and RBFs methods produced interpolation maps that help visualizing the location of GW within and above the guidelines. The analysis of spatial variability in the study area revealed high levels of TDS, EC, SAR, and some cations and anions in the coastal and south Qatar. While the spatial variability for nitrate and boron suggested the influence of human activities. A thorough understanding of the status of GW quality in Qatar is a significant tool for the GW management and decision-makers.

Impact of Fly Ash Placement in an Abandoned Opencast Mine on Surface and Ground Water Quality: A Case Study

We investigated potential contamination of surface and ground water due to placement of fly ash in an abandoned area of an active opencast mine. Leachates from the fly ash and pond ash did not exceed the effluent discharge limits for inland surface water. Even though iron was one of the major components of the ash, it did not exceed 0.3 mg/L in the leachates. Water quality studies carried out at the coal mine indicated that fly ash disposal there, was not affecting the groundwater, but that the water discharged from the active portion of the mine contained high concentrations of total hardness, total dissolved solids (TDS), sulphate, manganese, and iron, exceeding India’s effluent discharge limits. The nearby Ajay River was not contaminated but the confluence point where the mine water met the Ajay River contained high levels of TDS, sulphate, and manganese. Groundwater in the area surrounding the mine was not significantly impacted. Multivariate statistical analysis was carried out to determine the relationships between the different water quality parameters.

English

Access to quality drinking water is of major concern for sustainable development in developing countries with regard to physico-chemical properties. Groundwater from shallow wells is the main source of domestic water supply for the community of Ainabkoi Sub-County of Uasin Gishu County in Kenya. Seasonal agricultural production activities expose the water to possible pollution. In this regard the study aimed to assess the seasonal physico-chemical parameters in shallow wells among different farm sizes in three wards within Ainabkoi sub-county. Each ward was a homogenous stratum of same size-ranged farms classified as large, medium and small farm sizes in Ainabkoi, Olare and Kaptagat (Kipsinende) wards respectively. Within each ward farms were purposively and randomly selected such that only accessible farms that had access to either a privately owned or communal wells were selected. Wells were sampled during the wet and dry seasons of the year for a period of two years. The seasonal levels of physico-chemical parameters pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), turbidity and temperature were determined. There were non-significant differences between the farm sizes in the groundwater pH, EC, DO, turbidity and temperature. The groundwater pH values were within the WHO standards range of 6.3 to 8.5. EC values were below the recommended limits of potable water of 250 µccm-1. TDS and TSS differed significantly between farm sizes. Wells within the small mixed farm sizes had significantly high TDS levels ranging from 30-250 mgL-1. The TDS values ranged from 32.20-203.30 mgL-1 hence the wells can be classified as fresh water wells. TSS values were significantly higher during the wet season by about 90% and highest in wells within the large sized farms. The turbidity levels were higher than the recommended limits by WHO of at least 5.0 NTU in areas with limited resource availability. In conclusion, the groundwater in Ainabkoi sub-county can conservatively be categorised as safe for domestic use with regard to physico-chemical parameters. Key words: Farm sizes, groundwater, season; physico-chemical properties.

Forward osmosis remediation of high salinity Permian Basin produced water from unconventional oil and gas development

Unconventional oil and gas operations are on the rise, and they are an integral component to meeting the nation's energy needs. Produced water is the primary by-product of oil and gas operations, and it has proven challenging to treat to date. The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of using forward osmosis with thin-film composite hollow fiber membranes as a remediation option for produced water with high total dissolved solids levels from the Permian Basin. Trials consisted of a series of 5 experiments in order to evaluate the performance of the membrane. Three PW samples, each from different locations, were used to conduct the series of experiments and compare the performance of the membranes on samples with TDS levels ranging from 16,000 to 210,000 mg/L. It was concluded that forward osmosis can be used to extract water from high salinity oil field brines and PW. Flux decreased over the course of the trials due to a combination of membrane fouling, concentration polarization, and temperature fluctuations. The flux of the PW was similar to the flux measured for the PW mimic with small difference due to the influence of activity on the osmotic pressure. The flux was also influenced by temperature and the linear velocity of the feed solution and draw solution.

The influence of landfills located in different hydrogeological systems on Lithuanian groundwater quality

The article presents data on influence of non-operational landfills located in different hydrogeological systems on Lithuania groundwater quality. The landfills are located in open, semi-open, semi-closed and closed hydrogeological systems. The prevailing values of total dissolved solids (TDS) in the most intensive groundwater pollution zones of landfills can be divided into four TDS levels: low (400–3000 mg/l), moderate (TDS 3000–5000 mg/l), high (TDS 5000–20000 mg/l) and very high (TDS 20000–32000 mg/l). Groundwater with a low TDS level prevails in the most intensive groundwater pollution zones of landfills in open and semi-open hydrogeological systems. Groundwater with high and very high TDS levels characterizes about 3% of landfills in open and semi-open hydrogeological systems. The landfills in semi-closed and closed hydrogeological systems are also characterised by groundwater with a low TDS level. No landfills with a very high TDS level were found in semi-closed and closed hydrogeological systems.

Chemical and isotopic characteristics and origin of spring waters in the Lanping–Simao Basin, Yunnan, Southwestern China

The chemical and isotopic characteristics (oxygen, hydrogen, and strontium) of spring waters and isotopic compositions of helium (He) and neon (Ne) in gases escaping from spring waters in the Lanping–Simao Basin are studied. A total of twenty-one spring water samples (twelve hot springs, four cold springs, and five saline springs) and eleven gas samples were collected from the study area, including one spring and one gas sample from northern Laos. It is found that saline spring waters in the study area are of chloride type, cold spring waters are of carbonate type or sulfate type, and hot spring waters are of various types. High total dissolved solids levels in saline springs are significantly related to Upper Cretaceous–Paleocene salt-bearing strata. On the basis of hydrochemical geothermometry, the reservoir temperatures (Tr) for hot springs, cold springs, and saline springs are 65.5–144.1, 37.8–64.4, and 65.1–109.0°C, respectively, and the circulation depths of saline springs are much larger than those of hot and cold springs. The oxygen and hydrogen isotopic compositions of springs in the Lanping–Simao Basin and northern Laos are primarily controlled by meteoric waters with obvious latitude and altitude effects, and are also influenced by δ18O exchange to some extent. Most Sr2+ in spring waters of the study area is derived from varied sources (carbonate, evaporite, and silicate mineral dissolution), and the Sr isotopic compositions are greatly influenced by volcanic rocks. Wide distribution of crust-derived He in the Lanping–Simao Basin and northern Laos reveal that faults in these areas may not descend to the upper mantle. It is concluded that water circulation in the study area may be limited above the upper mantle, while saline springs may originate from the Upper Cretaceous–Paleocene evaporites. Hydrochemical characteristics demonstrate affinities among the Lanping–Simao Basin, northern Laos, and Yanjing, eastern Tibet, while disaffinities are observed between these areas and Tengchong on the basis of the hydrochemical characteristics and noble gas isotopic compositions.

Treatment Enables High-TDS Water Use as Base Fluid for Hydraulic Fracturing

Technology Update The beneficial use of produced water is receiving great attention in the oil and gas industry. As oil and gas are produced, large quantities of water containing high amounts of total dissolved solids (TDS) are produced in the process. Most of the high-saline produced water is reinjected into disposal wells. Reclaiming produced water as the base fluid for hydraulic fracturing not only helps to alleviate the industry’s dependence on fresh water, but also lowers the overall cost of the fracturing treatment. Contents of Produced Water Produced water usually comprises the formation water and the injected fluids from previous treatments. It can contain hydrocarbons, high levels of TDS, suspended solids, and residual production chemicals. The use of produced water for hydraulic fracturing has many advantages, such as reduction in disposal of produced water, reduction of freshwater consumption during completion and production operations, and realization of economic benefits by the operator. If produced water is gathered at or near the production site and a minimal treatment is applied in hydraulic fracturing fluids, recycling and reuse programs may become economically and environmentally beneficial. As hydraulic fracturing in shale plays continues to require large amounts of fresh water for oilfield operations (i.e., 4 to 6 million gallons per well in some cases), reusing produced water reduces freshwater consumption. With increased restrictions on water availability from subsurface or surface sources, fresh water is becoming more difficult to obtain. In some basins, the use of produced water in oil and gas drilling and slick-water-based fracturing treatments has been explored. Typically, these applications use water with low TDS levels. Little work has been done on the use of produced water with high TDS levels (>200,000 ppm) in fracturing fluids designed with linear or crosslinked gel bases. Treating High-TDS Water To reuse high-TDS produced water effectively in crosslinked gel-based hydraulic fracturing fluids, the water must first be treated. The treatment need not generate potable or fresh water, as some oil and gas industry water treatments do. The goal of the treatment is to remove only minerals that hinder the development of the crosslinked fluid or that cause scale buildup in the well. One effective form of produced water treatment is electrocoagulation (EC).

Nile water pollution and technical efficiency of crop production in Egypt: an assessment using spatial and non-parametric modelling

Agriculture is considered one of the vital activities in Egypt; it consumes about 83 % of the Egyptian Nile water quota. This activity is becoming negatively affected by water pollution causing negative repercussion on land productivity and subsequently food security. This paper assesses the water quality for agriculture along the mainstream of the Nile in Egypt through spatial distributions modelling of total dissolved solids (TDS), using spatial statistical analysis. The study’s sample frame consists of 78 sampling points collected in February 2008 and located on the Nile mainstream and its two branches, Rosetta and Damietta. Exploratory spatial data analysis is carried out on the TDS, followed by plotting and modelling the experimental semi-variogram. Then, cross validation is executed in order to determine the best fitting model. Finally, surface mapping is generated by performing spatial interpolation, using kriging technique. The generated surface map shows that the TDS levels increase from Upper to Lower Egypt, exceeds the standard limit in Beni-Suef and Rosetta branch. In fact, high levels of TDS are known to have a negative effect on Egyptian agriculture through harmfully affecting the soil and consequently the crop yields. Therefore, an analysis of the effect of water pollution on technical efficiency of crop production is conducted using a non-parametric mathematical programming approach to frontier estimation. The results of this estimation indicated that the TDS is overutilized in all governorates except Aswan.

Water Management Challenges Associated with the Production of Shale Gas by Hydraulic Fracturing

Development of unconventional, onshore natural gas resources in deep shales is rapidly expanding to meet global energy needs. Water management has emerged as a critical issue in the development of these inland gas reservoirs, where hydraulic fracturing is used to liberate the gas. Following hydraulic fracturing, large volumes of water containing very high concentrations of total dissolved solids (TDS) return to the surface. The TDS concentration in this wastewater, also known as “flowback,” can reach 5 times that of sea water. Wastewaters that contain high TDS levels are challenging and costly to treat. Economical production of shale gas resources will require creative management of flowback to ensure protection of groundwater and surface water resources. Currently, deep-well injection is the primary means of management. However, in many areas where shale gas production will be abundant, deep-well injection sites are not available. With global concerns over the quality and quantity of fresh water, novel water management strategies and treatment technologies that will enable environmentally sustainable and economically feasible natural gas extraction will be critical for the development of this vast energy source.

Assessing the Effect of a Dumpsite to Groundwater Quality in Payatas, Philippines

The study assessed and compared the groundwater quality of 14 selected wells continuously used in the with (Payatas) and without dumpsite (Holy Spirit) areas at the Payatas estate, Philippines. Water quality monitoring and analyses of the bio-physico-chemical variables (pH, Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), total coliform, conductivity, salinity, nitrate-nitrogen, sulfate, color, total chromium, total lead and total cadmium) were carried out for six consecutive months, from April to September 2003, covering both dry and wet seasons. Results showed most of the groundwater quality variables in both the with and without dumpsite areas of the Payatas estate were within the normal Philippine water quality standards except for the observed high levels of TDS, TSS and total coliform and low pH levels. No significant differences were observed for nitrate- nitrogen, total cadmium, total lead, total chromium and total coliform in both the with and without dumpsite areas. TDS, conductivity, salinity and sulfate concentrations in the with dumpsite groundwater sources were significantly different compared to those in the without dumpsite areas. Continuous water quality monitoring is encouraged to effectively analyze the impact of dumpsites on the environment and human health.

Calculating realistic PM10 emissions from cooling towers

AbstractEmissions of particulate matter less than 10 micrometers in diameter (PM10) from wet cooling towers may be calculated using the methodology presented in EPA's AP‐42 [1], which assumes that all total dissolved solids (TDS) emitted in “drift” particles (liquid water entrained in the air stream and carried out of the tower through the induced draft fan stack) are PM10. However, this assumption is overly conservative because it does not consider that, upon evaporation of the drift, many of the solid particles that remain are larger than PM10. Particles larger than 10 micrometers do not represent a health hazard and are not regulated under current air quality regulations. For example, for wet cooling towers with medium to high TDS levels, the AP‐42 methodology predicts significantly higher PM10 emissions than would actually occur, even for towers equipped with very high efficiency drift eliminators (e.g., 0.0006% drift rate). Such over‐prediction may result in unrealistically high PM10 modeled concentrations and/or the need to purchase expensive Emission Reduction Credits (ERCs) in PM10 non‐attainment areas. Since these towers have fairly low emission points (10 to 15 m above ground), over‐predicting PM10 emission rates can also result in exceeding federal Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) significance levels at a project's fenceline. This paper presents a method for computing realistic PM10 emissions from cooling towers with medium to high TDS levels by enabling the engineer to determine the PM10 mass fraction of the total amount of particulate emitted by a cooling tower.

Total Dissolved Solids: Determination, Sources, Effects, and Removal

Abstract Many parameters may be used to measure the deterioration of water quality. One very important parameter is total dissolved solids (TDS). An increase in TDS beyond acceptable levels can have a significant impact on municipal, industrial, and agricultural use of water. In this review an overview of the problem of high TDS levels is given. Factors related to TDS which are considered include: (a) laboratory determination, (b) natural and man-influenced sources, (c) adverse effects, and (d) treatment process removal techniques. A brief summary of the TDS problem associated with the Colorado River is also considered.