High Levels Of Reciprocity Research Articles

Temporal patterns of reciprocity in communication networks

Human communication, the essence of collective social phenomena ranging from small-scale organizations to worldwide online platforms, features intense reciprocal interactions between members in order to achieve stability, cohesion, and cooperation in social networks. While high levels of reciprocity are well known in aggregated communication data, temporal patterns of reciprocal information exchange have received far less attention. Here we propose measures of reciprocity based on the time ordering of interactions and explore them in data from multiple communication channels, including calls, messaging and social media. By separating each channel into reciprocal and non-reciprocal temporal networks, we find persistent trends that point to the distinct roles of one-to-one exchange versus information broadcast. We implement several null models of communication activity, which identify memory, a higher tendency to repeat interactions with past contacts, as a key source of temporal reciprocity. When adding memory to a model of activity-driven, time-varying networks, we reproduce the levels of temporal reciprocity seen in empirical data. Our work adds to the theoretical understanding of the emergence of reciprocity in human communication systems, hinting at the mechanisms behind the formation of norms in social exchange and large-scale cooperation.

“We Got Better”: Community Partners’ Perceptions of an Out-of-School Swimming Program for Underserved Children and Youth

The purpose of this study was to describe community partners’ (CPs) perceptions of an out-of-school swimming program (OSSP) for under­served children and youth. Participants were four CPs associated with the OSSP during three consecutive summers and parents of the children and youth who participated in the program. We employed a theoretical perspective derived from the literature on community-engaged scholarship and worked within the interpretive paradigm through a descriptive case study design. We collected data with five qualitative techniques. They were analyzed through analytic induction and constant comparison. Key findings were that CPs found the OSSP to be relevant, to have a high level of reciprocity, and to be resilient. The OSSP was shown to counter structural, institutional, personal, and cultural barriers that limited underserved children’s and youth’s access to and value of swimming. The research and assessment data generated during the OSSP led to little reflection or program improvement. Others aiming to design similar programs may benefit from examining the organizational structure and content of the OSSP.

Characteristics associated with optimistic or pessimistic perception about the probability of contracting COVID-19: A cross-sectional study of Japanese older adults

IntroductionExcessive optimistic perception about the probability of acquiring coronavirus disease (COVID-19) may hinder people from exercising preventive measures, whereas excessive pessimistic perception can induce psychological problems. Not much focus has been paid to this topic, and prior studies are only online surveys. We determined the characteristics of older adults with optimistic and pessimistic perceptions of the probability of contracting COVID-19. MethodsWe used data from the Japan Gerontological Evaluation Study (JAGES), including 18,045 participants aged ≥ 65 years (mean age: 75.7 years) who were physically and cognitively independent. Self-reported questionnaires were sent to 11 municipalities between November 2020 and February 2021. Multinomial logistic regression was used for data analysis. ResultsThe characteristics of 1,596 (8.8%) participants with optimistic perception and 1,276 (7.1%) with pessimistic perception were compared with that of others (80.4%) with moderate perception. Optimism about infection probability was positively associated with older age; better perceived financial conditions but negatively associated with higher education level; trust in TV news programs, TV information programs, and government-issued newsletters; depressive symptoms; and higher levels of reciprocity. Pessimism was negatively associated with higher levels of social cohesion. In contrast, it was positively associated with engagement in paid work; trust in TV news programs, the Internet, and information from medical staff; and depressive symptoms. ConclusionOptimistic and pessimistic perceptions about the probability of acquiring infection correlated differently with various characteristics. Thus, risk communication during a pandemic should be tailored based on specific individual characteristics.

What Drives Users to Go Beyond Mere Contribution? – The Role of Perceived Ownership

As digitization proceeds, relying on user communities to gain knowledge has become increasingly important for many firms. If firms want to benefit from such user communities providing knowledge and ideas, it is essential that users do not only contribute to the community but also give up some of their intellectual property rights so that others can build on their contributions in a cumulative manner. While previous research has shown that users can benefit from allowing others to build on their contributions, not all users decide to do so. We argue that this is due to perceived psychological ownership of the product, which can result in territorial responses and is particularly strong among users with high levels of reputation among community members. On the other hand, high levels of reciprocity among users shift the perceived locus of product ownership from the individual user to the community, and thus increase the likelihood that users give up some of their intellectual property rights and allow others to build on their contributions. We use data from the 3D-printable design community Thingiverse to test our claims and find evidence that is consistent with our theoretical reasoning.

The effects of the relational dimension of social capital on tacit and explicit knowledge sharing: a mixed-methods approach

PurposeKnowledge sharing among individuals from different teams is rare. Agile methods encourage only the exchange of tacit knowledge within teams. This study aims to analyse the influence of trust, norms of cooperation and reciprocity on tacit and explicit knowledge sharing among individuals from different software development teams.Design/methodology/approachData were collected using a cross-sectional survey involving 205 individuals working in software development teams. The authors adopted a mixed-methods approach involving partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) and fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA).FindingsPLS-SEM shows: the antecedents have different influence in tacit knowledge sharing (TKS) and in explicit knowledge sharing (EKS); trust influences directly TKS, and it only influences EKS indirectly, while reciprocity influences TKS directly and EKS both directly and indirectly; norms of cooperation directly influence TKS, and they only influence EKS indirectly. Overall, the fsQCA findings support PLS-SEM results: TKS contributes to EKS; reciprocity or trust is a sufficient condition for TKS and EKS; norms of cooperation are a sufficient condition for TKS; larger firms without high levels of reciprocity and trust cannot expect TKS and EKS. The quantitative and qualitative results are aligned.Research limitations/implicationsThe results cannot be generalisable because snowball sampling was used, and most of the respondents were Brazilians.Practical implicationsThis study should help managers and scholars: to appreciate the relevancy of TKS among individuals using agile methods to nurture EKS and to understand the different effects of reciprocity, trust and norms of cooperation on both TKS and EKS.Originality/valueConsidering three constructs, this study uses a mixed-methods approach to investigate the potential of the relational dimension of social capital theory to leverage TKS and EKS, to overcome the limitations of agile methods. The originality of this study regards that it shows the constructs of relational social capital influencing TKS and EKS differently.

Analysis of Network Structure and Doctor Behaviors in E-Health Communities from a Social-Capital Perspective.

In tandem with internet development and widespread social media use, e-health communities have begun to emerge in recent years. These communities allow doctors to access forums anywhere, anytime, seek or exchange medical information online, find literature, and so on. This is convenient and can solve some problems for doctors while also promoting doctor communication. This study collected and collated 102 doctors in the “Lilac Forum” and used social network tools to quantify the overall network density, centrality, core–periphery structure, and structural hole indicators of doctors’ information exchange from a social-capital perspective. The results showed that the frequency of interaction between doctors differed because of differences in the identities and participation of doctors in the e-health community. The density of the doctors’ information dissemination network (0.228) and network cohesion (0.610) were relatively high. Thus, the doctors were more closely connected, and information was easily spread. At the same time, doctors with higher professional titles had obvious location characteristics, familiarity and trust, and high levels of reciprocity. They could obtain redundant information in the network and were more likely to influence the behavior of other doctors. This study’s findings provide support for improving information exchange among doctors in e-health communities and improving the service levels of the platforms.

Reciprocity and commitment in online travel communities

PurposeWith social exchange theory as a basis, the purpose of this paper is to seek a better understanding of advice processes in online travel communities, which offer crucial advice for travelers’ decisions. It also predicts that relational capital variables (commitment, reciprocity perceptions) moderate the main relationships.Design/methodology/approachData from a web survey of 456 users of online travel communities affirm the scale’s validity and provide the input for structural equation modeling and multisample analyses of the hypotheses.FindingsHigher levels of commitment reinforce the effect of following past advice on passive and active participation intentions. Users’ perceptions of reciprocity in the community strengthen the influence of following past advice on active participation. However, a high level of reciprocity causes users following past advice to reduce their intentions to continue following that advice.Practical implicationsManagement tactics should specify active and passive participation in online travel communities. Specifically, to encourage the creation of high-quality new content, community managers should create interactive environments marked by high levels of reciprocity and commitment.Originality/valueThis research elucidates the role of relational capital variables in advice processes and advances understanding of online travel communities.

Power to the people: Developing networks through rural community energy schemes

Social capital, commonly understood as a system of shared norms, values and beliefs embedded within social networks is widely recognised as a facilitator of entrepreneurial activity. However, while the literature base has increased, questions remain as to how it works. Rural communities, despite well documented developmental challenges, are commonly associated with high levels of reciprocity and trust due to shared history or culture. Despite this there is a paucity of research linking social capital and rural social enterprise. Drawing upon these theoretical frameworks the study offers an understanding of how social capital works in practice through the examination of six rural social enterprises engaged in renewable energy schemes. The research adopts a qualitative approach. Focusing on the utilisation and development of networks, results indicate that social capital is both a process and an outcome of rural social enterprise.

Design Matters! An Empirical Analysis of Online Deliberation on Different News Platforms

Ever since the Internet has provided easy access to online discussion, advocates of deliberative democracy have hoped for an improved public sphere. This article investigates which particular platform features promote deliberative debate online. We assume that moderation, asynchronous discussion, a well‐defined topic, and the availability of information enhance the level of deliberative quality of user comments. A comparison between different types of news platforms that differ in terms of design (a news forum, news websites, and Facebook news pages) shows that deliberation (measured as rationality, reciprocity, respect, and constructiveness) differs significantly between platforms. We find that the news forum yields the most rational and respectful debate. While user comments on news websites are only slightly less deliberative, Facebook comments perform poorly in terms of deliberative quality. However, comments left on news websites and on Facebook show particularly high levels of reciprocity among users.

Community social capital and the use of health care services in Uganda.

Evidence mainly from high and middle income countries shows that community social capital is associated with positive health outcomes. The current policy interest in social capital stems from the anticipation that investing in it will enhance improvements in population health and some governments in high income countries have promoted initiatives to enhance its generation. However, there is a paucity of empirical evidence from low income countries on the utility of social capital for health outcomes. To assess the role of social capital in the use of health care services in Uganda, a low income country. The study sample included nine hundred and thirty six febrile children with complete data on place of treatment, caregiver social capital and socio-demographic variables; child demographic variables and household socioeconomic status were selected from the Iganga-Mayuge Health and Demographic Surveillance Site data base. The association for each dimension of social capital and use of a public health facility was explored using bivariate and multivariable regression models, controlling for potential confounding factors and other social capital variables at the individual caregiver and community levels. The study found that high levels of trust (OR 2.75, 1.50 to 5.02) and medium levels of informational support (OR 1.68, 1.12 to 2.50) were positively associated with the use of a public health facility. In contrast, high levels of reciprocity (OR 0.69, 0.49 to 0.97) were associated with non-use of a public health facility. This exploratory study shows an independent effect of community social capital on treatment choices made by child caregivers in a predominantly rural area of a low income country. This observation places social capital amongst the other contextual level factors that influence use of health care services in this setting. Such information can be used retrospectively or prospectively by health planners to enhance the response of communities to new policies and strategies. Key words: Social capital, health care service use, children, community, Uganda.

Fueling Community-Based Knowledge Management: Matching Peer-to-Peer Technology and the Social Architecture of Knowledge

Earlier research has shown the interdependence of knowledge management systems (KMS) and organizational factors. This study explores how peer-to-peer (P2P)-based KMS are perceived by users and whether those perceptions have impact on user acceptance and system usage. By employing a case study approach we bring together the overlapping disciplines and practices of information system architectures, knowledge management, and organizational behavior by exploring structural analogies between the social architecture of knowledge and the technical architecture of decentralized KMS. Our case analysis suggests a range of potential benefits: saved time in making knowledge available, higher levels of reciprocity and transparency, as well as faster knowledge creation.

Exploring large-scale peer-to-peer live streaming topologies

Real-world live peer-to-peer (P2P) streaming applications have been successfully deployed in the Internet, delivering live multimedia content to millions of users at any given time. With relative simplicity in design with respect to peer selection and topology construction protocols and without much algorithmic sophistication, current-generation live P2P streaming applications are able to provide users with adequately satisfying viewing experiences. That said, little existing research has provided sufficient insights on the time-varying internal characteristics of peer-to-peer topologies in live streaming. This article presents Magellan , our collaborative work with UUSee Inc., Beijing, China, for exploring and charting graph theoretical properties of practical P2P streaming topologies, gaining important insights in their topological dynamics over a long period of time. With more than 120 GB worth of traces starting September 2006 from a commercially deployed P2P live streaming system that represents UUSee's core product, we have completed a thorough and in-depth investigation of the topological properties in large-scale live P2P streaming, as well as their evolutionary behavior over time, for example, at different times of the day and in flash crowd scenarios. We seek to explore real-world P2P streaming topologies with respect to their graph theoretical metrics, such as the degree, clustering coefficient, and reciprocity. In addition, we compare our findings with results from existing studies on topological properties of P2P file sharing applications, and present new and unique observations specific to streaming. We have observed that live P2P streaming sessions demonstrate excellent scalability, a high level of reciprocity, a clustering phenomenon in each ISP, and a degree distribution that does not follow the power-law distribution.

A Social Relations Analysis of Team Performance Ratings

The current study used a Social Relations Model to analyze self and peer ratings to explore the dynamics of team member perceptions and performance ratings. The results from 29 organizational teams who completed performance ratings of themselves and team members indicated that the most rating variance was attributed to the relationship component, followed by the ratee component, followed by the rater component. Among other findings, the results indicated that self‐ratings were related to how one rates, and is rated by, others; that there were high levels of reciprocity between peers for dimensions that were interpersonal in nature; and that raters tended to evaluate others within, but not necessarily across, dimensions similarly.

International research strategies of multinational corporations: A German perspective*1

This paper explores the international research activities of multinational corporations that are related to Germany. It analyzes what role German companies and Germany as a host of foreign companies play in the growing specialization of global exploitation and generation of knowledge. The paper covers application oriented as well as strategic research for two company samples—German and non-German—on the basis of a complex indicator-based analysis (patents and publications) and microdata from business reports. The paper shows that internationalization of research and development (R&D) has increased and broadened in scope. It highlights the strong and growing differences existing between technological and scientific areas as well as between different sectors. Apparently, while the market adaptation of products is still the major driver for German companies, international knowledge seeking has become more and more important, especially in technological areas that are linked very closely to basic research. While Germany as a host of international industrial R&D is much more attractive for applied research (mechanical engineering) than for basic research, the country has still established attractiveness in selected knowledge-intensive technological areas and shows a high intensity of international cooperation. There is a high level of reciprocity in knowledge-intensive areas pointing towards a global specialization and division of labor.

International research strategies of multinational corporations: A German perspective

This paper explores the international research activities of multinational corporations that are related to Germany. It analyzes what role German companies and Germany as a host of foreign companies play in the growing specialization of global exploitation and generation of knowledge. The paper covers application oriented as well as strategic research for two company samples—German and non-German—on the basis of a complex indicator-based analysis (patents and publications) and microdata from business reports. The paper shows that internationalization of research and development (R&D) has increased and broadened in scope. It highlights the strong and growing differences existing between technological and scientific areas as well as between different sectors. Apparently, while the market adaptation of products is still the major driver for German companies, international knowledge seeking has become more and more important, especially in technological areas that are linked very closely to basic research. While Germany as a host of international industrial R&D is much more attractive for applied research (mechanical engineering) than for basic research, the country has still established attractiveness in selected knowledge-intensive technological areas and shows a high intensity of international cooperation. There is a high level of reciprocity in knowledge-intensive areas pointing towards a global specialization and division of labor.

The Relationship of Reciprocity to Intergenerational Interaction, Activity Enjoyment and Perceived Control

This study examined the relationship of reciprocity to intergenerational interaction, activity enjoyment, perceived situational control and age. Experiential Sampling Methodology was used to gather data from a sample of adults aged 45 and over and college students aged 18 to 25 in the southeastern United States. Reciprocity was related to activity enjoyment and perceived control over the activity. Participants reported higher levels of reciprocity when they enjoyed the activity. In addition, perceiving one's self in control of an activity or perceiving shared control was related to higher levels of reciprocity than a perception that others were in control. Neither the age of the participants nor the age of co-participants was related to reciprocity.

Trust and Reciprocity Under Asymmetric Information

We analyze the effects of introducing asymmetric information in an investment game (Berg et al., 1995), in which the division of an economic surplus between a trustor and a trustee is not contractible. Backward induction suggests that rational self-interested players would not voluntarily engage in any transaction, unless they expect trust and reciprocity to play a role in determining the behavior of their counterparts. In our experiment, only the trustee is aware of the size of the surplus obtained, so the trustor cannot tell if a low back-payment corresponds to a low or a high level of reciprocity. The introduction of asymmetric information in the investment game does not reduce the amounts sent and returned, when compared with previous experimental studies. Moreover, average payback levels increase with the average amount sent. Expectations about other's behavior and risk attitude are also elicited in the experiment. Our results show that the first movers' choices are functions of their expectations about the second movers' payback, and the second movers' choices depend on the difference between the amount the first movers have sent to them and their expectations about this amount.

A Question of Posture: Engaging the World with Justin Martyr, George Lindbeck and Hans Frei

This essay explores the posture adopted towards the world by one ancient and two contemporary Christian writers: Justin Martyr, George Lindbeck and Hans Frei. They respectively represent what are designated as defensive, receptive, and reciprocal postures, postures which determine the extent to which, and the manner in which, these writers appropriate insights and knowledge from beyond the Christian tradition. The theology and, to a lesser extent, the cultural background of each approach are studied. The particular doctrinal locus in question is Christology. An assessment is made of the link made by each author between the place of Jesus Christ in their theological framework and the posture which they adopt towards the rest of the world. Using the approaches of Justin and Lindbeck as a foil, Frei's idiosyncratic work will be shown to demonstrate that a high level of reciprocity between the church and the rest of the world is compatible with an orthodox Christology.