Higher Levels Of Emotional Reactivity Research Articles

The role of emotional reactivity in a relation between sleep problems and the use of screen-based media among toddlers and pre-schoolers

ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between toddlers’ and pre-schoolers’ sleep problems, screen-based media use, sleep regime and the role of child emotional reactivity in this relationship. This research is a part of an extensive national study. Participants are 754 children aged 2–5 years old, and their parents. Sleep problems were related to emotional reactivity and sleep regime. The longer screen time was associated with the higher levels of emotional reactivity, but not with sleep problems; however, emotional reactivity was significant for more sleep problems, inconsistent sleep regime and longer screen time. Results of paths analysis have revealed that emotional reactivity both directly and through the mediators – sleep regime, screen time and a screen-based device positioned in a child’s bedroom – significantly predicted sleep problems. Emotional reactivity plays a considerable role as a risk factor when examining the effect of screen media use for sleep problems.

How Gender Differences in Emotional Cutoff and Reactivity Influence Couple’s Sexual and Relational Outcomes

We evaluated gender differences in differentiation of self, specifically addressing aspects of emotional cutoff (EC) and emotional reactivity (ER), and their association with relational and sexual satisfaction and sexual desire. Midlife U.S. men and women (N = 334 married heterosexual couples; 50% female; 85% Caucasian, mean age 47.4 years) completed online surveys. Men reported higher levels of EC compared to women after accounting for control variables—a medium effect (Cohen's d = .48) which negatively predicted their own relationship and sexual satisfaction as well as partner relationship satisfaction. Women’s EC was also negatively associated with their own relationship satisfaction. Women reported higher levels of ER compared to men after accounting for control variables—a small effect (Cohen's d = .18). No associations with ER and outcome variables were found and no other partner effects were found. For couples in which the woman was higher on ER, the association between women's T1 emotional reactivity and men's T2 sexual desire was positive and significant (B = .31, p < .05). These findings underscore the influence of emotional cutoff on relationship satisfaction and sexual desire and the importance of staying engaged even through relational conflict.

Linking Emotional Reactivity Between Laboratory Tasks and Immersive Environments Using Behavior and Physiology.

An event or experience can induce different emotional responses between individuals, including strong variability based on task parameters or environmental context. Physiological correlates of emotional reactivity, as well as related constructs of stress and anxiety, have been found across many physiological metrics, including heart rate and brain activity. However, the interdependances and interactions across contexts and between physiological systems are not well understood. Here, we recruited military and law enforcement to complete two experimental sessions across two different days. In the laboratory session, participants viewed high-arousal negative images while brain activity electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded from the scalp, and functional connectivity was computed during the task and used as a predictor of emotional response during the other experimental session. In an immersive simulation session, participants performed a shoot-don’t-shoot scenario while heart rate electrocardiography (ECG) was recorded. Our analysis examined the relationship between the sessions, including behavioral responses (emotional intensity ratings, task performance, and self-report anxiety) and physiology from different modalities [brain connectivity and heart rate variability (HRV)]. Results replicated previous research and found that behavioral performance was modulated within-session based on varying levels of emotional intensity in the laboratory session (t(24) = 4.062, p < 0.0005) and stress level in the simulation session (Z = 2.45, corrected p-value = 0.0142). Both behavior and physiology demonstrated cross-session relationships. Behaviorally, higher intensity ratings in the laboratory was related to higher self-report anxiety in the immersive simulation during low-stress (r = 0.465, N = 25, p = 0.019) and high-stress (r = 0.400, N = 25, p = 0.047) conditions. Physiologically, brain connectivity in the theta band during the laboratory session significantly predicted low-frequency HRV in the simulation session (p < 0.05); furthermore, a frontoparietal connection accounted for emotional intensity ratings during the attend laboratory condition (r = 0.486, p = 0.011) and self-report anxiety after the high-stress simulation condition (r = 0.389, p = 0.035). Interestingly, the predictive power of the brain activity occurred only for the conditions where participants had higher levels of emotional reactivity, stress, or anxiety. Taken together, our findings describe an integrated behavioral and physiological characterization of emotional reactivity.

Forms of Social Conflicts in Schoolchildren as Perceived by the Children’s Teachers

Abstract Our article deals with social conflicts in “troubled” schoolchildren from the perspective of their teachers. Using Behaviour Assessment System for Children – Teacher Rating Scale (Czech method), a total of 92 schoolchildren have been tested. All the children were identified by their teachers as having behavioural difficulties. The children with behavioural difficulties have been found to engage especially in peer-related social conflicts, which involved negative relationships with classmates and aggressive behaviour, particularly in the younger children (1st to 5th grade of compulsory education). The relevant personality traits included a higher tendency to lie, higher levels of emotional reactivity, and a negative attitude towards one’s own behaviour. Based on the results, a recommendation is given to teachers working with children with behavioural difficulties, to aid prevention and render psychological counselling.

The relationship between alexithymia, empathy and moral judgment in patients with multiple sclerosis.

Converging research in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) has shown increased rates of alexithymia and disturbances in social cognition, including empathy and theory of mind. Moral judgment is one of the most complex spheres of human cognition, relying on intricate neural circuits related to many other affective, social, cognitive and behavioral processes. Relapsing-remitting MS patients (n = 38) and age-, gender- and education-matched controls (n = 38) completed a measure of alexithymia (Toronto Alexithymia Scale), a measure of empathy (Interpersonal Reactivity Index) and a series of moral dilemmas, for which measures of moral permissibility, emotional reactivity and moral relativity (the perception of how one's moral attitudes compare to the attitudes of the rest of the people) were derived. Relative to controls, patients exhibited decreased levels of other-oriented empathy [empathic concern (P < 0.01) and fantasy (P < 0.01)], increased levels of self-oriented personal distress (P < 0.01), as well as higher rates of alexithymia (P < 0.001). Moral permissibility was significantly reduced in patients with MS (P = 0.038), who also showed higher levels of emotional reactivity (P < 0.01). Additionally, a significantly higher number of patients than controls considered that respondents would deliver similar judgments to the same moral scenarios (P < 0.001). Understanding such complex interactions between individual dispositions and moral cognition has the potential to contribute to the development of better assessment and intervention strategies for MS patients, enhancing quality of life by achieving better social participation.

The ADH gene cluster SNP rs1789891 and temperamental dimensions in patients with alcohol dependence and affective disorders.

This study had three objectives: (1) to assess the relationship between the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs1789891 in the alcohol dehydrogenase gene cluster and alcohol dependence and affective disorders; (2) to assess the differences in the Regulative Theory of Temperament (RTT) traits between an alcohol dependent group, an affective disorders group, and a healthy group; and (3) to assess the relationship between rs1789891 and temperament traits in a healthy group, taking into account the interaction of genotype and sex. The SNP rs1789891 was genotyped in a group of 194 alcohol dependent men, aged 21 to 71 years; 137 patients with affective disorders, including 51 males and 86 females, aged 19 to 85 years; and a group of 207 healthy individuals, including 89 males and 118 females, aged 18 to 71 years. Temperament traits (briskness, perseveration, sensory sensitivity, emotional reactivity, endurance, and activity) were assessed in all groups using the Formal Characteristics of Behaviour-Temperament Inventory. The comparative analysis of genotypic frequencies showed no significant differences between patients with alcoholism or affective disorders and those in the control group. Alcohol dependent men and the affective disorder group were characterised by higher levels of emotional reactivity (p-value 1.4e-5 and 9.84e-7, respectively) and lower levels of briskness, sensory sensitivity, endurance, and activity (p-value from 3.76e-8 to 0.012) when compared to the healthy group. The rs1789891 polymorphism was associated with briskness (p=0.02), sensory sensitivity (p=0.036), and activity (p=0.049). None of the results were statistically significant after Bonferroni correction.

Social anxiety and differentiation of self: A comparison of Jewish and Arab college students

This study examined the relationship between differentiation of self and social anxiety, comparing young Jewish and Arab college students in Israel and looking at gender differences. The sample consisted of 300 college students: 127 Jews and 173 Arabs (107 Muslims, 43 Christians and 23 Druze). Of these, 175 were males and 123 females, while 2 did not specify their gender. Results indicated that Jews reported higher levels of I-position and lower levels of emotional cutoff than Arabs. Females reported higher levels of emotional reactivity and fusion with others than males. On the whole, results lend support to the universality of Family Systems Theory and point to the importance of examining differentiation of self when trying to decrease social anxiety.

Relatedness and Individuation Among Young Adults Born Preterm: The Role of Relationships with Parents and Death Anxiety

Preterm birth may constitute a risk factor for long-term difficulties when facing developmental tasks of relatedness and individuation in young adulthood. Since these early experiences might leave individuals more susceptible to anxiety, we examined whether relationships with parents and death anxiety mediated the associations between preterm birth and difficulties in relatedness and individuation. The sample included 57 emerging adults who were born preterm, and a paired control group that filled out questionnaires: The Perceptions of Adult Attachment Questionnaire, Personal Assessment of Intimacy in Relationships, the death anxiety test, and projective assessment of death anxiety. Preterm young adults and their counterparts exhibited similar levels of closeness with their parents, with romantic partner, and with best friend. A different picture emerged with regard to differentiation and death anxiety. Preterm young adults exhibited higher levels of emotional reactivity and fusion with others, and higher levels of death anxiety than their counterparts. Death anxiety mediated the relations between preterm birth status and differentiation. It appears that, despite the fact that these youngsters experienced a traumatic event early in their lives, they overcame this difficult experience and were successful in maintaining closeness with close others. In contrast, the traces of the preterm birth might be more pronounced in the domain of differentiation. People who experienced separations from significant others, especially early in life, may develop high levels of death anxiety as death is experienced as the ultimate separation from a close person. Enduring death anxiety might complicate the individuation process. Gender differences that were found are in accord with previous findings. The strengths and limitations of the study as well as suggestions for future research are discussed.

The role of pubertal timing and temperamental vulnerability in adolescents' internalizing symptoms

This longitudinal study examined the joint role of pubertal timing and temperament variables (emotional reactivity and self-regulation) in predicting adolescents' internalizing symptoms. The multiethnic sample included 1,025 adolescent girls and boys followed from age 11 to age 15 (M age = 11.03 years at Time 1). In structural equation models, age 11 measures of pubertal timing, emotional reactivity, and self-regulation and their interactions were used to predict adolescents' internalizing behavior concurrently and at age 15. Results indicated that, among girls, early pubertal timing, higher emotional reactivity, and lower self-regulation predicted increased internalizing behavior. In addition, self-regulation moderated the effect of pubertal timing such that effects of earlier timing on subsequent internalizing were seen primarily among girls with relatively poor self-regulation. Among boys, higher levels of emotional reactivity and lower self-regulation predicted increased internalizing, but there were no effects of pubertal timing. After controlling for Time 1 internalizing symptoms, only self-regulation predicted change in internalizing symptoms. Discussion focuses on the possible interplay of temperament and pubertal development in predicting internalizing problems during adolescence.

Overcoming Stuttering Using Delayed Auditory Feedback (DAF): A Case Study

Background: With the tremendous improvements in technology in producing new techniques to overcome stuttering, many assumptions were stated from different aspects. Aims: To in/validate some of the stuttering assumptions, the present study attempts to investigate the role played by Delayed Auditory Feedback (DAF) device in overcoming stuttering and improving stutterers’ fluency. Methods: A client study of MO, a 23-year old bilingual student who exhibits stuttering and language delay due to psychological factors. An intensive therapeutic treatment which continued for 20 months has been given to the client at hand. The client had to practice (in English) ten(10) alphabetical characters, twenty (20) words (10 nouns and 10 verbs), and ten (10)sentences for four continuous hours every day. Results: The analyses of the client’s utterances throughout five entire sessions show that his rate of speech became slower if not almost normal across increases in DAF. The findings reveal that simultaneous application of both treatments on speaking through DAF was successful in reducing the rate of stuttering in the speech of the client under investigation. It all depends on age, determination, the level of severity, and the way he/she uses DAF. These findings account for the results that support many theories of stuttering including Phonemic Content Theory, Covert Repair Hypothesis (CRH) and Johnson's theory. Taken together, these results weigh strongly against the hypothesis stated that stutterers have generally high levels of emotional reactivity (e.g., Brutten/Shoemaker, 1967).

Are Differentiation Levels Associated with Schizophrenia?

This study examines the differences between individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia and nonpatient controls people in terms of levels of differentiation of self and family differentiation. Data were collected from 134 participants—67 with schizophrenia and 67 nonpatient controls—each of whom completed the Differentiation of Self Inventory–Revised (DSI–R) and the Family Differentiation Scale (DIFS). Participants with schizophrenia were found to have higher levels of emotional reactivity, emotional cutoff and fusion with others, as well as lower levels of I-position, and they reported lower levels of family differentiation. The findings lend support to Bowen's theoretical conceptions concerning the relationship between differentiation and schizophrenia.

The relationship between differentiation of self and satisfaction with life amongst Israeli women: A cross cultural perspective

The current study examined the relationships between satisfaction with life and differentiation of self among Jewish and Arab women living inIsrael. The sample included 268 participants: 114 Jewish women and 154 Arab women. For both ethnic groups, satisfaction with life was negatively correlated with emotional cutoff. Among Arab women, satisfaction with life was found positively associated with I-position, marriage duration and education. The examination of cross-cultural differences yielded several findings: Arab women reported higher levels of emotional reactivity and I-position than Jewish women. No cultural differences were found in the levels of fusion with others, emotional cutoff and satisfaction with life. The current findings show that working women, who are highly differentiated, are satisfied with life to a greater extent than non-working women who are poorly differentiated. In general, the research findings provide support to the universality of the Family Systems Theory, and to the argument that differentiation of self is an important factor which may influence emotional wellbeing in all cultures.

Emotional reactivity and regulation in infancy interact to predict executive functioning in early childhood.

The relation of observed emotional reactivity and regulation in infancy to executive function in early childhood was examined in a prospective longitudinal sample of 1,292 children from predominantly low-income and rural communities. Children participated in a fear eliciting task at ages 7, 15, and 24 months and completed an executive function battery at age 48 months. Results indicated that the relation of child negative emotional reactivity at 15 months of age to executive functioning at 48 months of age was dependent on observed emotion regulation. High levels of executive function ability were observed among children who exhibited high levels of emotional reactivity and high levels of the regulation of this reactivity. In contrast, low levels of executive function ability were observed among children who exhibited high levels of reactivity but low levels of regulation. Among children exhibiting low levels of emotional reactivity, emotion regulation was unrelated to executive functioning. Moreover, emotionally reactive infants exhibiting high levels of emotion regulation were more likely to have primary caregivers who exhibited high levels of positive parenting behavior in a parent-child interaction task. Results provide support for a neurobiologically informed developmental model in which the regulation of emotional arousal is one mechanism whereby supportive environments are associated with higher levels of self-regulation ability for highly reactive infants. Findings are discussed with implications for differential susceptibility and biological sensitivity theories of child by context interaction.

Morningness–eveningness and temperament: The Regulative Theory of Temperament perspective

The aim of the present study was to test whether morningness–eveningness is related to the six dimensions of temperament postulated in the Regulative Theory of Temperament: briskness (BR), perseveration (PE), sensory sensitivity (SS), emotional reactivity (ER), endurance (EN), and activity (AC). A sample of 581 undergraduates (age: 21.92±2.54; 381 female) completed the Morningness–Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) and the Formal Characteristics of Behaviour – Temperament Inventory. Data was analysed using linear and quadratic hierarchical regressions. The MEQ scores exhibited linear associations with BR and EN and quadratic relationships with PE, ER and AC. Morningness was related to high levels of EN, BR and AC and low levels of PE and ER, while eveningness was associated with low levels of EN, ER, BR and PE and high levels of AC. Subjects in the middle of the morningness–eveningness dimension exhibited high levels of PE and ER, low levels of AC, and average levels of EN and BR. Morningness was related to the most advantageous temperament profile, and temperament is discussed as a possible mediator between morningness–eveningness and mood and affective disorders.

Emotional reactivity in infants with congenital heart defects and maternal symptoms of postnatal depression

The object of this study was to examine the role of emotional reactivity in infants with congenital heart defects (CHD) in relation to their mothers' symptoms of postnatal depression. The study population was drawn from the Norwegian country-wide CHD registry from the Department of Pediatric Cardiology at Oslo University Hospital and the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study. Mother-infant dyads with mild/moderate or severe CHD (n=242) were assessed with a 6-item short version (EPDS-6) of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale and the Infant Characteristic Questionnaire's fussy/difficult subscale (ICQ-D/F-7) at 6 months postpartum. When adjusting for infant emotional reactivity, mothers of infants with severe CHD showed significantly elevated symptoms of postnatal depression 6 months postpartum (odds ratio=2.22) compared to the mothers of infants with mild/moderate CHD. The results identify severe CHD in infants as a predictor of heightened symptoms of postnatal depression in mothers, independent of the infant's emotional reactivity. Although a causal direction underlying the association could not be determined, the possible, negative reciprocal relationships between severe CHD in infants, high levels of emotional reactivity in infants, and symptoms of maternal postnatal depression are considered.

Differentiation of Self and Separation Anxiety: Is There a Similarity Between Spouses?

The aims of our study were to: (1) explore the relationship between differentiation of self and separation anxiety; and (2) examine the congruency between spouses in terms of these variables. The research is the first to study differentiation of self and separation anxiety among adults in general, and among married couples in particular. On the whole, results indicated that spouses had similar levels of differentiation on two scales: emotional cutoff and I-position, while women reported higher levels of emotional reactivity and fusion with others. A significant relationship was found among men between fusion with others and separation anxiety: a high level of fusion was found to correlate with a high level of anxiety. Among women, a high level of emotional reactivity was related to a high level of separation anxiety. These findings shed further light on Bowen’s family system theory, as they indicate correlations between several measures of differentiation and separation anxiety.

Emotional reactivity to daily life stress in psychosis.

The vulnerability-stress model of psychotic disorders describes, in essence, an interaction between personal vulnerability and environmental stressors. The present study investigated this interaction and studied emotional reactivity to daily life stress as a vulnerability marker for psychotic illness. Patients with psychotic illness (n = 42), their first-degree relatives (n = 47), and control subjects (n = 49) were studied with the Experience Sampling Method (a structured diary technique assessing thoughts, current context, and mood in daily life) to assess (1) appraised subjective stress of daily events and smaller disturbances in daily life and (2) emotional reactivity conceptualized as changes in both negative affect and positive affect. Multilevel regression analyses showed that an increase in subjective stress was associated with an increase in negative affect and a decrease in positive affect in all groups. However, the groups differed quantitatively in their pattern of reactions to stress. Patients with psychotic illness reacted with more intense emotions to subjective appraisals of stress in daily life than control subjects. The decrease in positive affect in the relatives was similar to that of the patients, while the increase in negative affect in this group was intermediary to that of patients and control subjects. Higher levels of familial risk for psychosis were associated with higher levels of emotional reactivity to daily life stress in a dose-response fashion. Subtle alterations in the way persons interact with their environment may constitute part of the vulnerability for psychotic illness.

Emotional Reactivity and Risk for Psychopathology Among Adolescents

Various aspects of personality or dispositional style predict risk for psychiatric disorders among adults. In particular, signs of neuroticism, emotional reactivity, or sensitivity to stress are strong predictors of later mood or anxiety disorders. The current report extends this literature to adolescents. An epidemiologic sample of 776 young people living in upstate New York received psychiatric assessments based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third Edition-Revised, (DSM-III-R) and a self-report assessment of personality style in 1983 and 1985. Psychopathology was again assessed in 1992. The current study first examined demographic correlates of emotional reactivity. The study then considered the predictive relationship between emotionally reactive personality style at one study wave and psychopathology at later waves. In middle but not early adolescence, girls showed higher levels of emotional reactivity than boys. In turn, high levels of emotional reactivity predicted a range of psychiatric disorders at follow-up. The most consistent associations emerged for major depression and fearful spells, a term the authors use to describe a subclinical form of panic attacks. As in adults, midadolescent girls rate themselves as more emotionally reactive than midadolescent boys. Moreover, adolescents who rate themselves as emotionally reactive face a high risk for mood and anxiety disorders. High levels of emotional reactivity may represent a manifestation of underlying neurobiologic risk for mood and anxiety disorders.

Differences in anxiety-related behaviours and in sensitivity to diazepam in inbred and outbred strains of mice.

Natural strain differences exist in mice for behavioural traits such as emotional reactivity. The present experiments compared the behavioural profiles of nine strains of mice (BALB/c, C57BL/6, C3H, CBA, DBA/2, NMRI, NZB, SJL, Swiss) in two models of anxiety after the administration of the benzodiazepine diazepam. The tests used were the light/dark choice task and the elevated plus-maze, two well-validated anxiolytic screening tests. In vehicle-treated animals, differences on variables designed to measure anxiety-related behaviours were observed in both tests. In the light/dark test, the strains could be divided into three distinct groups: two non-reactive strains (NZB and SJL), an intermediate-reactive group (C3H, CBA, DBA/2, NMRI, C57BL/6 and Swiss), and one highly reactive strain (BALB/c). In the elevated plus-maze, SJL, NMRI, CBA and, to a lesser extent, C3H strains of mice, consistently showed low levels of anxiety-related behaviours. Intermediate levels were seen in the Swiss and BALB/c strains, and high levels of emotional reactivity were seen in C57BL/6, DBA/2 and NZB. The strain distribution between the light/dark and the elevated plus-maze tests shows similarities and differences, suggesting that each of these experimental procedures represents a different set of behaviours. Marked differences between a number of strains of mice in their sensitivity to the anxiolytic-like action of diazepam were observed in both the light/dark and the elevated plus-maze tests. Mice of the BALB/c, Swiss and, to a lesser extent, CBA and C3H strains were responsive to diazepam in both tests, although in the case of CBA mice, effects may have been contaminated by behavioural suppression. SJL mice were largely unresponsive to the action of the benzodiazepine in both tests, whereas in C57, DBA/2, NMRI and NZB mice, diazepam produced positive effects only in the elevated plus-maze. The finding of differential strain distributions both with and without diazepam treatment in the light/dark and the elevated plus-maze tests, indicates that not all strains of mice are suitable for investigating the effects of GABA/BZ receptor ligands. This study may thus provide a useful guide for choosing the best strain of mice for studying the pharmacology of fear-related behaviours.

Reactions of selectively bred strains of rats to a cat.

Reactions of five strains of rat to a cat, a rabbit, and a box, all of comparable size and color, were investigated. The response measures were approach behavior score, general activity, percentage of activity in the neighborhood of the stimulus objects, rearing, defecation, latency to emerge, direction of emergence, and freezing and touching the stimulus objects. Rats avoided the cat, froze in the presence of the cat, and showed higher levels of emotional reactivity to the cat than to the rabbit or the box. The five strains of rat were more uniform in their reactions to the cat than to the rabbit or the box.