High Levels Of Cycling Research Articles

Cycling behaviour in 17 countries across 6 continents: levels of cycling, who cycles, for what purpose, and how far?

ABSTRACT International comparisons of cycling behaviour have typically been limited to high-income countries and often limited to the prevalence of cycling, with lack of discussions on demographic and trip characteristics. We used a combination of city, regional, and national travel surveys from 17 countries across the six continents, ranging from years 2009 through 2019. We present a descriptive analysis of cycling behaviour including level of cycling, trip purpose and distance, and user demographics, at the city-level for 35 major cities (>1 million population) and in urbanised areas nationwide for 11 countries. The Netherlands, Japan and Germany are among the highest cycling countries and their cities among the highest cycling cities. In cities and countries with high cycling levels, cycling rates tend to be more equal between work and non-work trips, whereas in geographies with low cycling levels, cycling to work is higher than cycling for other trips. In terms of cycling distance, patterns in high- and low-cycling geographies are more similar. We found a strong positive association between the level of cycling and women’s representation among cyclists. In almost all geographies with cycling mode share greater than 7% women made as many cycle trips as men, and sometimes even greater. The share of cycling trips by women is much lower in geographies with cycling mode shares less than 7%. Among the geographies with higher levels of cycling, children (<16 years) are often overrepresented. Older adults (>60 years) remain underrepresented in all geographies but have relatively better representation where levels of cycling are high. In low-cycling settings, females are underrepresented across all the age groups, and more so when older than 16 years. With increasing level of cycling, representation of females improves across all the age groups, and most significantly among children and older adults. Clustering the cities and countries into homogeneous cycling typologies reveals that high cycling levels always coincide with high representation of females and good representations of all age groups. In low-cycling settings, it is the reverse. We recommend that evaluations of cycling policies include usage by gender and age groups as benchmarks in addition to overall use. To achieve representation across different age and gender groups, making neighbourhoods cycling friendly and developing safer routes to school, should be equally high on the agenda as cycling corridors that often cater to commuting traffic.

A comparison of cycling cultures in Stockholm and Copenhagen

This study focuses on two central Scandinavian cities – Copenhagen and Stockholm – that are generally thought to be culturally close but have deviated with respect to cycling policies and infrastructure. Based on a survey including inhabitants of Copenhagen (n = 1110) and Stockholm (n = 1191), this study investigated whether cyclists in Copenhagen and Stockholm experience the transport systems in the two cities differently, and to what extent cycling perceptions can explain differences in cycling level (minutes of cycling) among cyclists. Cycling levels are much higher in Copenhagen than Stockholm, and cyclists in Copenhagen perceive a higher prioritization in traffic, feel safer, and perceive a higher ability to reach their destinations by bike. Using ordered logit models, we examined the effect of different factors on cycling level among cyclists in both cities. Those who live in Copenhagen have higher levels of cycling even when other independent variables are included in our model. Other significant factors were employment, which increased cycling, and car access, which decreased cycling. Being female was related to higher cycling levels in Copenhagen, but not in Stockholm. The only significant cycling perception was the perceived ease and feasibility of getting to important destinations by bicycle (cycling autonomy). Results of a similar analysis including non-cyclists led to comparable results. The results suggest that differences in cycling levels between the two cities are related to the overall mobility culture of the two cities (in particular different policies, norms and infrastructure), while individual/micro-level factors, appear rather inadequate for understanding urban differences.HighlightsCycling behaviors and perceptions were surveyed in Copenhagen and Stockholm.Cycling level (minutes of cycling) was much higher and cycling was perceived more positively in Copenhagen compared to Stockholm.Living in Copenhagen increased cycling when other relevant factors were controlled for.Other significant factors included being employed and not having access to a car.A significant interaction was found between gender and city of residence.

Cycling under the influence of alcohol in Germany

Cyclists have a relatively high risk of being injured in traffic accidents. In Germany, statistics have shown that cyclists injured in police-reported traffic accidents are often found to have cycled with high blood alcohol levels. Relevant research has discussed the ability of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB; Ajzen, 1991), deterrence factors, and habitual behavior to predict unsafe and rule-violating behavior in traffic. To promote safer cycling, the relative contributions of these predictors must be determined to design efficient countermeasures. In an online survey, N = 353 participants reported cycling and drinking behaviors for 1 week and answered questions on the TPB, deterrence, and additional predictors. Perceived social norms were quite permissive and perceived behavioral control when cycling under the influence (CUI) of alcohol was quite high. Furthermore, a third of the cyclists reported CUI. Participants with experience of CUI reported having consumed large amounts of alcohol before cycling. High levels of cycling, a permissive attitude, and greater alcohol consumption per drinking episode predicted the number of CUI trips. The amount of alcohol consumed before one CUI trip was predicted by high perceived behavioral control when CUI, a high level of need for stimulation, and higher habitual alcohol consumption per drinking episode. Deterrence factors were found to have no influence on reported CUI. Overall, the findings suggested that Germans who habitually drink a large amount of alcohol are not deterred from CUI in the same manner that they would be from driving under the influence (DUI). The generally permissive perceived social norms did not differentiate between CUI and non-CUI cyclists, which indicated that a societal effort is required to balance the mismatch between CUI and DUI. In addition, changing the general drinking behaviors of highly educated Germans who cycle, would be beneficial for their health.

Human naïve regulatory T-cells feature high steady-state turnover and are maintained by IL-7.

Naïve FoxP3-expressing regulatory T-cells (Tregs) are essential to control immune responses via continuous replenishment of the activated-Treg pool with thymus-committed suppressor cells. The mechanisms underlying naïve-Treg maintenance throughout life in face of the age-associated thymic involution remain unclear. We found that in adults thymectomized early in infancy the naïve-Treg pool is remarkably well preserved, in contrast to conventional naïve CD4 T-cells. Naïve-Tregs featured high levels of cycling and pro-survival markers, even in healthy individuals, and contrasted with other circulating naïve/memory CD4 T-cell subsets in terms of their strong γc-cytokine-dependent signaling, particularly in response to IL-7. Accordingly, ex-vivo stimulation of naïve-Tregs with IL-7 induced robust cytokine-dependent signaling, Bcl-2 expression, and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-dependent proliferation, whilst preserving naïve phenotype and suppressive capacity. Altogether, our data strongly implicate IL-7 in the thymus-independent long-term survival of functional naïve-Tregs, and highlight the potential of targeting the IL-7 pathway to modulate Tregs in different clinical settings.

“I grew up on a bike”: Cycling and older adults

A large proportion of the growing population of older adults have low levels of physical activity and face ensuing health and mobility problems. Cycling is a health-promoting and widely accessible transportation option. However, throughout North America cycling rates amongst older adults are extremely low. Evidence from European countries suggests that cycling for older adults is possible and can be a popular travel choice. Therefore, we aimed to assess factors that contribute to cycling trends amongst North American older adults. We used a mixed methods approach to describe cycling behaviors, and facilitators and barriers to cycling in a highly bikeable area of Vancouver, Canada. We conducted a cross-sectional study of older adults (age ≥60 years) who lived in Vancouver’s downtown core. During September–October 2012, participants (n=191) recorded travel in 7-day diaries and completed questionnaires on cycling behaviors and perceptions of their neighborhood environments. We conducted in depth interviews with a subset of older adults (n=27) to better understand how they travelled in and around their neighborhoods. Participants demonstrated relatively high levels of cycling; one in four participants reported cycling in a usual week. Cycling mode share was 3.2% (182/5730 reported trips). Notably, this cycling mode share is three times higher than the mode share for older adults living in the region and double the mode share for the general (all-ages) population. Based on a framework analysis of the interviews, factors that facilitate cycling include supportive infrastructure, a history of activity and the social aspects of cycling. Factors that were barriers to cycling, both amongst those who reported cycling and those who did not, focused on safety, including motor vehicle traffic, cyclist behavior and theft. Our results suggest that should favorable policy and environmental conditions exist, cycling as a form of active transportation may be a viable option for older adults.

The factors influencing car use in a cycle-friendly city: the case of Cambridge

Encouraging people out of their cars and into other modes of transport, which has major advantages for health, the environment and urban development, has proved difficult. Greater understanding of the influences that lead people to use the car, particularly for shorter journeys, may help to achieve this. This paper examines the predictors of car use compared with the bicycle to explore how it may be possible to persuade more people to use the bicycle instead of the car. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the socio-demographic, transport and health-related correlates of mode choice for work, shopping and leisure trips in Cambridge, a city with high levels of cycling by UK standards. The key findings are that commuting distance and free workplace parking were strongly associated with use of the car for work trips, and car availability and lower levels of education were associated with car use for leisure, shopping and short-distanced commuting trips. The case of Cambridge shows that more policies could be adopted, particularly a reduction in free car parking, to increase cycling and reduce the use of the car, especially over short distances.

What do cyclists need to see to avoid single-bicycle crashes?

The number of single-bicycle crash victims is substantial in countries with high levels of cycling. To study the role of visual characteristics of the infrastructure, such as pavement markings, in single-bicycle crashes, a study in two steps was conducted. In Study 1, a questionnaire study was conducted among bicycle crash victims (n = 734). Logistic regression was used to study the relationship between the crashes and age, light condition, alcohol use, gaze direction and familiarity with the crash scene. In Study 2, the image degrading and edge detection method (IDED-method) was used to investigate the visual characteristics of 21 of the crash scenes. The results of the studies indicate that crashes, in which the cyclist collided with a bollard or road narrowing or rode off the road, were related to the visual characteristics of bicycle facilities. Edge markings, especially in curves of bicycle tracks, and improved conspicuity of bollards are recommended. Statement of Relevance: Elevated single-bicycle crash numbers are common in countries with high levels of cycling. No research has been conducted on what cyclists need to see to avoid this type of crash. The IDED-method to investigate crash scenes is new and proves to be a powerful tool to quantify ‘visual accessibility’.

Making Cycling Irresistible: Lessons from The Netherlands, Denmark and Germany

This article shows how the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany have made bicycling a safe, convenient and practical way to get around their cities. The analysis relies on national aggregate data as well as case studies of large and small cities in each country. The key to achieving high levels of cycling appears to be the provision of separate cycling facilities along heavily travelled roads and at intersections, combined with traffic calming of most residential neighbourhoods. Extensive cycling rights of way in the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany are complemented by ample bike parking, full integration with public transport, comprehensive traffic education and training of both cyclists and motorists, and a wide range of promotional events intended to generate enthusiasm and wide public support for cycling. In addition to their many pro‐bike policies and programmes, the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany make driving expensive as well as inconvenient in central cities through a host of taxes and restrictions on car ownership, use and parking. Moreover, strict land‐use policies foster compact, mixed‐use developments that generate shorter and thus more bikeable trips. It is the coordinated implementation of this multi‐faceted, mutually reinforcing set of policies that best explains the success of these three countries in promoting cycling. For comparison, the article portrays the marginal status of cycling in the UK and the USA, where only about 1% of trips are by bike.

Factors Affecting Bicycling Demand

The levels of bicycling in the United States, particularly for nonrecreation purposes and among adults, are low. Only about 1% of the trips that people make in the United States are on bicycles, and less than 5% of trips under 1/2 mi are made on bicycles. Factors influencing the rates of cycling include demographics and environmental factors. Environmental factors can be measured both objectively (e.g., number of miles of bike lanes, average temperature, and street connectivity) and subjectively (e.g., people's ratings or perceptions of the bicycling environment). People's attitudes about travel and mobility likely play a role. This paper uses the results from a random phone survey of adults in the Portland, Oregon, region to explore the relationships between levels of cycling and demographics, objective environmental factors, perceptions of the environment, and attitudes. The survey revealed several significant differences, although additional analysis is necessary. Objective measures of proximity to off-street trails and bike lanes was not associated with higher levels of cycling. However, positive perceptions of the availability of bike lanes was associated with more cycling and the desire to cycle more. Higher levels of street connectivity were associated with more cycling for utilitarian trips.

Longitudinal Analysis of the Acute Sendai Virus-Specific CD4+ T Cell Response and Memory

The development and persistence of Sendai virus-specific CD4+ T cell memory has been analyzed following respiratory infection of C57BL/6J mice by determining the prevalence of IL-2-producing Th cell precursors (Thp). Frequencies as high as 1:40 virus-specific CD4+ T cells were found in the regional lymph nodes and spleen during the acute phase of the host response and persisted at levels > or =1:500 for 2 to 3 mo. Thereafter, these CD4+ T cells tended to distribute more to the spleen than to the lymph nodes, a pattern that persisted for the life of the animals. From 3 to 12 mo after infection, virus-specific Thp were always detectable, although the numbers were diminished relative to those measured during the acute phase. Thereafter, however, in both contemporary and cumulative assays, there was a progressive increase in both the frequency and number of Thp. These increases were especially apparent for mice more than 2 years of age. This may reflect enrichment of the CD4+CD44high memory set due to the gradual diminution of the naive CD4+CD62LhighCD44low component. Analysis of DNA staining profiles for the CD4+ T cells showed high levels of cycling for the acute phase of the response, whereas the rate of T cell turnover measured for the CD4+CD44high population by bromodeoxyuridine incorporation indicated a pattern of stable, continuing proliferation throughout life. Virus-specific CD4+ T cell memory resulting from a single exposure to a readily eliminated RNA virus is thus maintained indefinitely in laboratory mice.

The Development of a Measure of Intersectoral Connectedness by Using Structural Path Analysis

In this study we analyze the changes that take place in intersectoral linkages in the process of diversification, and the roles of sectors in such changes. Data from input—output and structural path analysis are utilized to develop indices that can be used for assessing the connectedness of sectors (and industries within sectors) in any economy. In addition, measures are developed for quantifying linkages, and the economic influence transmitted by them, that are sensitive to structural change over space and time. The indices are then used to examine the relationship between sectoral diversity, linkages, and development by analyzing the economic relationships between sectors in the form of intersectoral linkages of six planning districts in Virginia, in addition to the economies of the State of Virginia and the USA. On the basis of these analyses, it is concluded that: (a) contrary to Hirschman's suggestion that the complexity of linkages increased with industrial diversification, the results suggest that diversification leads to less complexity in the linkage relationships; and (b) economies with mixed sectoral representation have higher levels of cycling, on average, than those with industrial diversity in just one sector. The implications of these findings for policy and planning are discussed.