High Intensity Focused Ultrasound Array Research Articles

Treatment Planning and Aberration Correction Algorithm for HIFU Ablation of Renal Tumors.

High-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) applications for thermal or mechanical ablation of renal tumors often encounter challenges due to significant beam aberration and refraction caused by oblique beam incidence, inhomogeneous tissue layers, and presence of gas and bones within the beam. These losses can be significantly mitigated through sonication geometry planning, patient positioning, and aberration correction using multielement phased arrays. Here, a sonication planning algorithm is introduced, which uses the simulations to select the optimal transducer position and evaluate the effect of aberrations and acoustic field quality at the target region after aberration correction. Optimization of transducer positioning is implemented using a graphical user interface (GUI) to visualize a segmented 3-D computed tomography (CT)-based acoustic model of the body and to select sonication geometry through a combination of manual and automated approaches. An HIFU array (1.5 MHz, 256 elements) and three renal cell carcinoma (RCC) cases with different tumor locations and patient body habitus were considered. After array positioning, the correction of aberrations was performed using a combination of backpropagation from the focus with an ordinary least squares (OLS) optimization of phases at the array elements. The forward propagation was simulated using a combination of the Rayleigh integral and k-space pseudospectral method (k-Wave toolbox). After correction, simulated HIFU fields showed tight focusing and up to threefold higher maximum pressure within the target region. The addition of OLS optimization to the aberration correction method yielded up to 30% higher maximum pressure compared to the conventional backpropagation and up to 250% higher maximum pressure compared to the ray-tracing method, particularly in strongly distorted cases.

Quantitative Assessment of Boiling Histotripsy Progression Based on Color Doppler Measurements.

Boiling histotripsy (BH) is a mechanical tissue liquefaction method that uses sequences of millisecond-long high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) pulses with shock fronts. The BH treatment generates bubbles that move within the sonicated volume due to acoustic radiation force. Since the velocity of the bubbles and tissue debris is expected to depend on the lesion size and liquefaction completeness, it could provide a quantitative metric of the treatment progression. In this study, the motion of bubble remnants and tissue debris immediately following BH pulses was investigated using high-pulse repetition frequency (PRF) plane-wave color Doppler ultrasound in ex vivo myocardium tissue. A 256-element 1.5 MHz spiral HIFU array with a coaxially integrated ultrasound imaging probe (ATL P4-2) produced 10 ms BH pulses to form volumetric lesions with electronic beam steering. Prior to performing volumetric BH treatments, the motion of intact myocardium tissue and anticoagulated bovine blood following isolated BH pulses was assessed as two limiting cases. In the liquid blood the velocity of BH-induced streaming at the focus reached over 200 cm/s, whereas the intact tissue was observed to move toward the HIFU array consistent with elastic rebound of tissue. Over the course of volumetric BH treatments tissue motion at the focus locations was dependent on the axial size of the forming lesion relative to the corresponding size of the HIFU focal area. For axially small lesions, the maximum velocity after the BH pulse was directed toward the HIFU transducer and monotonically increased over time from about 20-100 cm/s as liquefaction progressed, then saturated when tissue was fully liquefied. For larger lesions obtained by merging multiple smaller lesions in the axial direction, the high-speed streaming away from the HIFU transducer was observed at the point of full liquefaction. Based on these observations, the maximum directional velocity and its location along the HIFU propagation axis were proposed and evaluated as candidate metrics of BH treatment completeness.

Robust and durable aberrative and absorptive phantom for therapeutic ultrasound applications.

Phase aberration induced by soft tissue inhomogeneities often complicates high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) therapies by distorting the field and, previously, we designed and fabricated a bilayer gel phantom to reproducibly mimic that effect. A surface pattern containing size scales relevant to inhomogeneities of a porcine body wall was introduced between gel materials with fat- and muscle-like acoustic properties-ballistic and polyvinyl alcohol gels. Here, the phantom design was refined to achieve relevant values of ultrasound absorption and scattering and make it more robust, facilitating frequent handling and use in various experimental arrangements. The fidelity of the interfacial surface of the fabricated phantom to the design was confirmed by three-dimensional ultrasound imaging. The HIFU field distortions-displacement of the focus, enlargement of the focal region, and reduction of focal pressure-produced by the phantom were characterized using hydrophone measurements with a 1.5 MHz 256-element HIFU array and found to be similar to those induced by an ex vivo porcine body wall. A phase correction approach was used to mitigate the aberration effect on nonlinear focal waveforms and enable boiling histotripsy treatments through the phantom or body wall. The refined phantom represents a practical tool to explore HIFU therapy systems capabilities.

Bilayer aberration-inducing gel phantom for high intensity focused ultrasound applications.

Aberrations induced by soft tissue inhomogeneities often complicate high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) therapies. In this work, a bilayer phantom made from polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel and ballistic gel was built to mimic alternating layers of water-based and lipid tissues characteristic of an abdominal body wall and to reproducibly distort HIFU fields. The density, sound speed, and attenuation coefficient of each material were measured using a homogeneous gel layer. A surface with random topographical features was designed as an interface between gel layers using a 2D Fourier spectrum approach and replicating different spatial scales of tissue inhomogeneities. Distortion of the field of a 256-element 1.5 MHz HIFU array by the phantom was characterized through hydrophone measurements for linear and nonlinear beam focusing and compared to the corresponding distortion induced by an ex vivo porcine body wall of the same thickness. Both spatial shift and widening of the focal lobe were observed, as well as dramatic reduction in focal pressures caused by aberrations. The results suggest that the phantom produced levels of aberration that are similar to a real body wall and can serve as a research tool for studying HIFU effects as well as for developing algorithms for aberration correction.

Aberration correction using nonlinear backscattered signals from the focus of an ultrasound beam

High intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) therapies are often affected by aberrations, which can severely limit treatments. For multi-element arrays, applying phase corrections for each element could mitigate these effects. Here, an aberration correction method based on cross-correlation of nonlinear HIFU waves, backscattered from the focus is proposed and tested. A spherically focused 1.5 MHz 256-element HIFU array powered by Verasonics system was used for both emitting and receiving backscattered ultrasound waves. A short (3-cycle) high-amplitude pulse was transmitted through an aberrating layer into an ex vivo clotted bovine blood sample. The backscattered signal was recorded by individual array elements and high-pass filtered at 4 MHz. The layer introduced different acoustic path lengths for individual elements leading to a decrease in the peak-positive pressure of ~70%. The time delay required for each element to restore the nonlinear waveform at the focus was calculated based on the cross-correlation between the backscattered filtered signals. The results were confirmed by replacing the sample with a hydrophone. Using the corrected time delays, peak-positive focal pressure increased over 75% from uncorrected aberrated levels. These results demonstrate that the proposed focal “nonlinear beacon” can be used for phase correction feedback in HIFU treatments of soft tissue. [Work supported by NIH R01GM122859, R01EB007643, and RSF19-12-00148.]

Design and fabrication of an annular array high intensity focused ultrasound transducer with an optimal electrode pattern

In this study, an annular high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) array transducer was developed to suppress the level of sidelobes below a given requirement with a minimum number of channels. The electrode patterns analyzed for the transducer were equal electrode area pattern and variable electrode width pattern. In finite element analysis of the transducer performance, the variable electrode width pattern transducer was proven to be able to suppress the level of sidelobes below −12 dB with 9 channels, while the equal electrode area pattern transducer required at least 10 channels to suppress the level of sidelobes by the same amount. Hence, the variable electrode width pattern was preferred for the annular array HIFU transducer. The validity of the comparison was verified by fabricating and characterizing prototypes of the transducer of each electrode pattern. The variable electrode width pattern annular array HIFU transducer is expected to be an effective tool for various therapeutic ultrasound applications.

Self-Scanned HIFU Ablation of Moving Tissue Using Real-Time Hybrid US-MR Imaging.

High intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) treatment in the abdominal cavity is challenging due to the respiratory motion. In the self-scanning HIFU ablation method, the focal spot is kept static and the heating pattern is obtained through natural tissue motion. This paper describes a novel approach for modulating the HIFU power during self-scanning in order to compensate for the effect of tissue motion on thermal buildup. The therapy, using hybrid ultrasound (US)/magnetic resonance (MR) imaging, consists of detecting and tracking speckle on US images in order to predict the next tissue position, and modulating the HIFU power according to the tissue speed in order to obtain a rectilinear pattern of uniform temperature elevation. Experiments were conducted on ex vivo tissue subjected to a breathing-like motion generated by an MR-compatible robot and sonicated by a phased array HIFU transducer. US and MR data were free from interferences. For both periodic and non-periodic motion, MR temperature maps showed a substantial improvement in the uniformity of the temperature elevation by using acoustic power modulation. The presented method does not require a learning stage and enables a duty cycle close to 100%, higher average acoustic intensity and avoidance of side lobe effects versus performing HIFU beam steering to compensate tissue motion. To our knowledge, the proposed method provides the first experimental validation of the self-scanning HIFU ablation paradigm via a real-time hybrid MRI/US imaging, opening the path toward self-scanning in vivo therapies.

Method for Designing Multielement Fully Populated Random Phased Arrays for Ultrasound Surgery Applications.

Maximizing the power of multielement phased arrays is a critical factor for high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) applications such as histotripsy and transcostal sonications. This can be achieved by a tight packing of the array elements. Good electronic focusing capabilities are also required. Currently used quasi-random arrays with a relatively low filling factor of about 60% have this focusing ability. Here, a novel method of designing random HIFU arrays with the maximum possible filling factor (100% if no gaps between elements needed in practice are introduced) and polygonal elements of equal area and slightly different shapes based on the capacity-constrained tessellation is described. The method is validated by comparing designs of two arrays with the same geometric and physical parameters: an existing 256-element array with a compact 16-spirals layout of circular elements and the proposed array with the maximum possible filling factor. Introduction of a 0.5-mm gap between the elements of the new array resulted in a reduction of its filling factor to 86%, as compared with 61% for the spiral array. It is shown that for the same intensity at the elements, the proposed array provides two times higher total power while maintaining the same electronic focusing capabilities as compared to the spiral one. Furthermore, the surface of the capacity-constrained tessellation array, its boundary, and a central opening can have arbitrary shapes.

Analysis of nonlinear acoustic wave propagation in HIFU treatment using Westervelt equation

Currently, the HIFU (High Intensity Focused Ultrasound) therapy method is known as one of the most advanced surgical techniques in tumor ablation therapy. Simulation of the non-linear acoustic wave and tissue interaction is essential in HIFU planning to improve the usefulness and efficiency of treatment. In this paper, linear, thermoviscous and nonlinear equations are applied using two different media, namely liver and water. Transducer power of 8.3-134 Watts with the frequency of 1.1 MHz is considered as the range of study to analyze the wave and tissue interaction. Results indicate that the maximum focal pressure of about 0.5-4.3 MPa can be achieved for transducer power of 8.3 to 134 W. Simultaneous solving of the acoustic pressure equation and Pennes’s bio-heat equation are used to determine the temperature rise at focal point and the ablated area. Finally, the linear and nonlinear simulations are compared, and the turning point of transition from linearity to nonlinearity is determined. The simulated results provide information about the behavior of the focalized ultrasound in interaction with liver tissue. The performance of phased array HIFU transducer can be improved for treatment considering the lesion size, temperature rise in tissue and choosing best range of operational power.

Dependence of Boiling Histotripsy Treatment Efficiency on HIFU Frequency and Focal Pressure Levels

Boiling histotripsy (BH) is a high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU)–based method of mechanical tissue fractionation that utilizes millisecond-long bursts of HIFU shock waves to cause boiling at the focus in milliseconds. The subsequent interaction of the incoming shocks with the vapor bubble mechanically lyses surrounding tissue and cells. The acoustic parameter space for BH has been investigated previously and an inverse dependence between the HIFU frequency and the dimensions of a BH lesion has been observed. The primary goal of the present study was to investigate in more detail the ablation rate and reliability of BH in the frequency range relevant to treatment of deep abdominal tissue targets (1–2 MHz). The second goal was to investigate the effect of focal peak pressure levels and shock amplitude on BH lesion formation, given a constant duty factor, a constant ratio of the pulse duration to the time to reach boiling and a constant number of BH pulses. A custom-built 12-element sector array HIFU transducer with F-number = 1.05 was used in all experiments. BH pulses at 5 different frequencies (1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.7 and 1.9 MHz) were delivered to optically transparent polyacrylamide gel phantoms and ex vivo bovine liver and myocardium tissue to observe cavitation and boiling bubble activity with high-speed photography and B-mode ultrasound imaging, correspondingly. In gel phantoms, a cavitation bubble cloud was shown to form prefocally and to shield the focus in all exposures at 1 and 1.2 MHz and in the highest amplitude exposures at 1.5–1.7 MHz; shielding was not observed at 1.9 MHz. In ex vivo tissue, this shielding effect was observed in 25% of exposures when peak negative in situ pressure exceeded 10.2 MPa at 1 MHz and 14.5 MPa at 1.5 MHz. When shielding occurred, the exposures resulted in mild tissue disruption in the prefocal region, but not liquefaction. The dimensions of liquefied lesions followed the inverse proportionality trend with frequency; consequently, the frequency range of 1.2–1.5 MHz appeared to be preferable for BH exposures in terms of the compromise between the ablation rate and reliability. The lesion size was independent of the duration of the BH pulses (or the total “HIFU on” time), provided that the number of pulses was constant and boiling was induced within each pulse. Thus, the use of shorter (1 ms vs. 10 ms), higher amplitude BH pulses allowed up to 10-fold reduction in treatment time for a given duty factor.

Design of HIFU Transducers to Generate Specific Nonlinear Ultrasound Fields

Various clinical applications of high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) have different requirements on the pressure level and degree of nonlinear waveform distortion at the focus. Applications that utilize nonlinear waves with developed shocks are of growing interest, for example, for mechanical disintegration as well as for accelerated thermal ablation oftissue. In this work, an inverse problem of determining transducer parameters to enable formation of shockswith desired amplitude at the focus is solved. The solution was obtained by performing multipledirect simulations of the parabolic Khokhlov–Zabolotskaya–Kuznetsov (KZK) equation for various parameters of the source. It is shown that results obtained within the parabolic approximation can be used to describe the focal region of single element spherical sourcesas well as complex transducer arrays. It is also demonstrated that the focal pressure level at which fully developed shocksare formed mainly depends on the focusing angle of the source and only slightly depends on its aperture and operating frequency. Using the simulation results, a 256-element HIFU array operating at 1.5 MHz frequency was designed for a specific application of boiling-histotripsy that relies on the presence of 90-100 MPa shocks at the focus. The size of the array elements and focusing angle of the array were chosen to satisfy technical limitations on the intensity at the array elements and desired shock amplitudes in the focal waveform. Focus steering capabilities of the array were analysed using an open-source T-Array software developed at Moscow State University.

HIFU scattering by the ribs: constrained optimisation with a complex surface impedance boundary condition

High intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) enables highly localised, non-invasive tissue ablation and its efficacy has been demonstrated in the treatment of a range of cancers, including those of the kidney, prostate and breast. HIFU offers the ability to treat deep-seated tumours locally, and potentially bears fewer side effects than more established treatment modalities such as resection, chemotherapy and ionising radiation. There remains however a number of significant challenges which currently hinder its widespread clinical application. One of these challenges is the need to transmit sufficient energy through the ribcage to ablate tissue at the required foci whilst minimising the formation of side lobes and sparing healthy tissue. Ribs both absorb and reflect ultrasound strongly. This sometimes results in overheating of bone and overlying tissue during treatment, leading to skin burns. Successful treatment of a patient with tumours in the upper abdomen therefore requires a thorough understanding of the way acoustic and thermal energy is deposited. Previously, a boundary element (BE) approach based on a Generalised Minimal Residual (GMRES) implementation of the Burton-Miller formulation was developed to predict the field of a multi-element HIFU array scattered by human ribs, the topology of which was obtained from CT scan data [1]. Dissipative mechanisms inside the propagating medium have since been implemented, together with a complex surface impedance condition at the surface of the ribs. A reformulation of the boundary element equations as a constrained optimisation problem was carried out to determine the complex surface velocities of a multi-element HIFU array which generated the acoustic pressure field that best fitted a required acoustic pressure distribution in a least-squares sense. This was done whilst ensuring that an acoustic dose rate parameter at the surface of the ribs was kept below a specified threshold. The methodology was tested at an excitation frequency of 1 MHz on a spherical multi-element array in the presence of anatomical ribs.

Scattering of high-intensity focused ultrasound by the ribs: Constrained optimization with a complex surface impedance boundary condition

One of the challenges of trans-rib high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) treatment is the need to transmit sufficient energy through the ribcage to ablate tissue whilst minimizing the formation of side lobes, and sparing healthy tissue. Ribs strongly absorb and reflect ultrasound. This may result in overheating of bone and overlying tissue during treatment, leading to skin burns. Successful treatment of a patient with tumors of the liver or the pancreas therefore requires a thorough understanding of the way acoustic and thermal energy is deposited. A boundary element approach was developed to predict the field of a multi-element HIFU array scattered by human ribs in 3D. This forward model has been reformulated as a constrained least squares optimization problem where the velocity of each individual element on the array is an optimization variable. A locally reacting complex surface impedance condition at the surface of the ribs has been implemented. The methodology has been tested at an excitation frequency of 1 MHz on a spherical section multi-element array and a total of six array-rib configurations have been investigated. The results were compared against other focusing and rib-sparing approaches, demonstrating the efficacy and flexibility of the constrained optimization approach.

Flat HIFU transducer with a sawtooth-shaped ultrasound radiation face

High-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) transducers are spherically-curved in order to obtain a high intensity gain of the converged ultrasound energy at the geometrical focus. Ultrasound imaging devices monitor the procedure of HIFU treatment in ultrasound-guided HIFU systems where the image probe is positioned at the apex of the HIFU transducer, which has a spherical surface. However, the remote image probe’s location yields a poor image quality compared to that obtained using conventional ultrasound imaging where the image probe is in direct contact with the surface. A phased array HIFU transducer with a new structure is suggested to overcome this limitation. The centers of the array elements are distributed over the flat surface of the transducer. However, the elements are tilted to form a geometrical focus, like a transducer with a spherically-curved surface, to obtain a high focal gain. The cross-section of the ultrasound radiation face of the transducer resembles the teeth of a saw. The acoustic field emitted from this transducer was simulated in order to design and produce the transducer. The simulation was compared with the measured sound field to verify that the transducer was correctly manufactured and designed; subsequently, the acoustic power was measured, and ultrasound images were obtained through the installation of an image probe on the transducer, which confirmed the application of this transducer to HIFU treatment.

Towards the optimisation of acoustic fields for ablative therapies of tumours in the upper abdomen

The efficacy of high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) for the non-invasive treatment of cancer has been demonstrated for a range of different cancers including those of the liver, kidney, prostate and breast. As a non-invasive focused therapy, HIFU offers considerable advantages over other techniques such as chemotherapy and surgical resection, in terms of its non-invasiveness and low risk of harmful side effects. There is, however, a number of significant challenges which currently hinder its widespread clinical application. One of these challenges is the need to transmit sufficient energy through the ribcage to induce tissue necrosis at the required foci whilst minimising the formation of side lobes and sparing healthy tissue. Ribs both absorb and reflect ultrasound strongly. As such, a common side effect of focusing ultrasound in regions located behind the rib cage is the overheating of bone and surrounding tissue, which can lead to skin burns. Successful treatment of a patient with tumours in the upper abdomen therefore requires a thorough understanding of the way acoustic and thermal energy are deposited. This is likely to rely on a treatment planning procedure in which optimal source velocity distributions are obtained so as to maximise a dose quantity at the treatment sites, whilst ensuring that this quantity does not exceed a specified threshold at other field locations, particularly on the surface of the ribs. Previously, a boundary element approach based on a Generalised Minimal Residual (GMRES) implementation of the Burton-Miller formulation was developed to predict the field of a multi-element HIFU array scattered by human ribs, the topology of which was obtained from CT scan data [1]. This work describes the reformulation of the boundary element equations as a least-squares minimisation problem with non-linear constraints. The methodology was subsequently tested at an excitation frequency of 100 kHz on a spherical multi-element array in the presence of a perfectly rigid cylindrical scatterer with hemi-spherical end-caps. Reduction of side lobes in the exterior domain and of acoustic pressure magnitudes on the surface of the cylinder were achieved whilst preserving a local maximum in the focal region.

The optimization of acoustic fields for ablative therapies of tumours in the upper abdomen

High intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) enables highly localized, non-invasive tissue ablation and its efficacy has been demonstrated in the treatment of a range of cancers, including those of the kidney, prostate and breast. HIFU offers the ability to treat deep-seated tumours locally, and potentially bears fewer side effects than more invasive treatment modalities such as resection, chemotherapy and ionizing radiation. There remains however a number of significant challenges which currently hinder its widespread clinical application. One of these challenges is the need to transmit sufficient energy through the ribcage to ablate tissue at the required foci whilst minimizing the formation of side lobes and sparing healthy tissue. Ribs both absorb and reflect ultrasound strongly. This sometimes results in overheating of bone and overlying tissue during treatment, leading to skin burns. Successful treatment of a patient with tumours in the upper abdomen therefore requires a thorough understanding of the way acoustic and thermal energy is deposited. Previously, a boundary element approach based on a Generalized Minimal Residual (GMRES) implementation of the Burton–Miller formulation was developed to predict the field of a multi-element HIFU array scattered by human ribs, the topology of which was obtained from CT scan data (Gélat et al 2011 Phys. Med. Biol. 56 5553–81). The present paper describes the reformulation of the boundary element equations as a least-squares minimization problem with nonlinear constraints. The methodology has subsequently been tested at an excitation frequency of 1 MHz on a spherical multi-element array in the presence of ribs. A single array–rib geometry was investigated on which a 50% reduction in the maximum acoustic pressure magnitude on the surface of the ribs was achieved with only a 4% reduction in the peak focal pressure compared to the spherical focusing case. This method was then compared with a binarized apodization approach based on ray tracing and against the decomposition of the time-reversal operator (DORT). In both cases, the constrained optimization provided a superior ratio of focal peak pressure to maximum pressure magnitude on the surface of the ribs.

Characterization of nonlinear ultrasound fields of 2D therapeutic arrays.

A current trend in high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) technologies is to use 2D focused phased arrays that enable electronic steering of the focus, beamforming to avoid overheating of obstacles (such as ribs), and better focusing through inhomogeneities of soft tissue using time reversal methods. In many HIFU applications, the acoustic intensity in situ can reach thousands of W/cm2 leading to nonlinear propagation effects. At high power outputs, shock fronts develop in the focal region and significantly alter the bioeffects induced. Clinical applications of HIFU are relatively new and challenges remain for ensuring their safety and efficacy. A key component of these challenges is the lack of standard procedures for characterizing nonlinear HIFU fields under operating conditions. Methods that combine low-amplitude pressure measurements and nonlinear modeling of the pressure field have been proposed for axially symmetric single element transducers but have not yet been validated for the much more complex 3D fields generated by therapeutic arrays. Here, the method was tested for a clinical HIFU source comprising a 256-element transducer array. A numerical algorithm based on the Westervelt equation was used to enable 3D full-diffraction nonlinear modeling. With the acoustic holography method, the magnitude and phase of the acoustic field were measured at a low power output and used to determine the pattern of vibrations at the surface of the array. This pattern was then scaled to simulate a range of intensity levels near the elements up to 10 W/cm2. The accuracy of modeling was validated by comparison with direct measurements of the focal waveforms using a fiber-optic hydrophone. Simulation results and measurements show that shock fronts with amplitudes up to 100 MPa were present in focal waveforms at clinically relevant outputs, indicating the importance of strong nonlinear effects in ultrasound fields generated by HIFU arrays.

Large improvement of the electrical impedance of imaging and high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) phased arrays using multilayer piezoelectric ceramics coupled in lateral mode

With a change in phased-array configuration from one dimension to two, the electrical impedance of the array elements is substantially increased because of their decreased width (w)-to-thickness (t) ratio. The most common way to compensate for this impedance increase is to employ electrical matching circuits at a high cost of fabrication complexity and effort. In this paper, we introduce a multilayer lateral-mode coupling method for phased-array construction. The direct comparison showed that the electrical impedance of a single-layer transducer driven in thickness mode is 1/(n²(1/(w/t))²) times that of an n-layer lateral mode transducer. A large reduction of the electrical impedance showed the impact and benefit of the lateral-mode coupling method. A one-dimensional linear 32-element 770-kHz imaging array and a 42-element 1.45-MHz high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) phased array were fabricated. The averaged electrical impedances of each element were measured to be 58 Ω at the maximum phase angle of -1.2° for the imaging array and 105 Ω at 0° for the HIFU array. The imaging array had a center frequency of 770 kHz with an averaged -6-dB bandwidth of approximately 52%. For the HIFU array, the averaged maximum surface acoustic intensity was measured to be 32.8 W/cm² before failure.

Scattering of the field of a multi-element phased array by human ribs

The efficacy of high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) for the non-invasive treatment of cancer has been demonstrated for a range of different cancers including those of the liver, kidney, prostate and breast. As a non-invasive focused therapy, HIFU offers considerable advantages over other techniques such as chemotherapy and surgical resection, in terms of invasiveness and risk of harmful side effects. Despite its advantages, however, there are a number of significant challenges currently hindering its widespread clinical application. One of these challenges is the need to transmit sufficient energy through the ribcage to induce tissue necrosis at the required foci whilst minimising the formation of side lobes. Multielement random arrays are currently showing great promise in overcoming the limitations of single-element transducers. Nevertheless, successfully treating a patient for liver tumours requires a thorough understanding of the way in which the ultrasonic pressure field from a HIFU array is scattered by the ribcage. A mesh of quadratic pressure patches was generated using CT scan data for ribs nine to twelve on the right side. A boundary element approach based on a Generalised Minimal Residual (GMRES) implementation of the Burton-Miller formulation was used, in conjunction with phase conjugation techniques to focus the field of a 256-element random HIFU array past the ribs at both intercostal and transcostal treatment locations. This method has the advantage of accounting for full effects of scattering and diffraction in three dimensions under continuous wave excitation.

Modelling of the acoustic field of a multi-element HIFU array scattered by human ribs

The efficacy of high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) for the treatment of a range of different cancers, including those of the liver, prostate and breast, has been demonstrated. As a non-invasive focused therapy, HIFU offers considerable advantages over techniques such as chemotherapy and surgical resection in terms of reduced risk of harmful side effects. Despite this, there are a number of significant challenges which currently hinder its widespread clinical application. One of these challenges is the need to transmit sufficient energy through the rib cage to induce tissue necrosis in the required volume whilst minimizing the formation of side lobes. Multi-element random-phased arrays are currently showing great promise in overcoming the limitations of single-element transducers. Nevertheless, successful treatment of a patient with liver tumours requires a thorough understanding of the way in which the ultrasonic pressure field from a HIFU array is scattered by the rib cage. In order to address this, a boundary element approach based on a generalized minimal residual (GMRES) implementation of the Burton–Miller formulation was used in conjunction with phase conjugation techniques to focus the field of a 256-element random HIFU array behind human ribs at locations requiring intercostal and transcostal treatment. Simulations were carried out on a 3D mesh of quadratic pressure patches generated using CT scan anatomical data for adult ribs 9–12 on the right side. The methodology was validated on spherical and cylindrical scatterers. Field calculations were also carried out for idealized ribs, consisting of arrays of strip-like scatterers, demonstrating effects of splitting at the focus. This method has the advantage of fully accounting for the effect of scattering and diffraction in 3D under continuous wave excitation.