High-gradient RF Cavities Research Articles

Explainable machine learning for breakdown prediction in high gradient rf cavities

The occurrence of vacuum arcs or radio frequency (rf) breakdowns is one of the most prevalent factors limiting the high-gradient performance of normal conducting rf cavities in particle accelerators. In this paper, we search for the existence of previously unrecognized features related to the incidence of rf breakdowns by applying a machine learning strategy to high-gradient cavity data from CERN's test stand for the Compact Linear Collider (CLIC). By interpreting the parameters of the learned models with explainable artificial intelligence (AI), we reverse-engineer physical properties for deriving fast, reliable, and simple rule-based models. Based on 6 months of historical data and dedicated experiments, our models show fractions of data with a high influence on the occurrence of breakdowns. Specifically, it is shown that the field emitted current following an initial breakdown is closely related to the probability of another breakdown occurring shortly thereafter. Results also indicate that the cavity pressure should be monitored with increased temporal resolution in future experiments, to further explore the vacuum activity associated with breakdowns.

RF Cavity Induced Sensitivity Limitations on Beam Loss Monitors

Due to the secondary showers generated when a particle hits the vacuum chamber, beam losses at an accelerator may be detected via radiation detectors located near the beam line. Several sources of background can limit the sensitivity and reduce the dynamic range of a Beam Loss Monitor (BLM). This document concentrates on potential sources of background generated near high gradient RF cavities due to dark current and voltage breakdowns. An optical fibre has been installed at an experiment of the Compact Linear Collider (CLIC) Test Facility (CTF3), where a dedicated study of the performance of a loaded and unloaded CLIC accelerating structure is undergoing. An analysis of the collected data and a benchmarking simulation are presented to estimate BLM sensitivity limitations. Moreover, the feasibility for the use of BLMs optimised for the diagnostics of RF cavities is discussed.

Development of a high gradient rf system using a nanocrystalline soft magnetic alloy

The future high intensity upgrade project of the J-PARC (Japan Proton Accelerator Research Complex) MR (Main Ring) includes developments of high gradient rf cavities and magnet power supplies for high repetition rate. The scenario describing the cavity replacements is reported. By the replacement plan, the total acceleration voltage will be almost doubled, while the number of rf stations remains the same. The key issue is the development of a high gradient rf system using high impedance magnetic alloy, FT3L. The FT3L is produced by the transverse magnetic field annealing although the present cavity for the J-PARC adopts the magnetic alloy, FT3M, which is annealed without magnetic field. After the test production using a large spectrometer magnet in 2011, a dedicated production system for the FT3L cores was assembled in 2012. This setup demonstrated that we can produce material with 2 times higher ${\ensuremath{\mu}}_{p}^{\ensuremath{'}}\mathrm{Qf}$ product compared to the cores used for present cavities. In this summer, the production system was moved to the company from J-PARC and is used for mass production of 280 FT3L cores for the J-PARC MR. The cores produced in the first test production are already used for standard machine operation. The operation experience shows that the power loss in the cores was reduced significantly as expected.

Surface-Emission Studies in a High-Field RF Gun based on Measurements of Field Emission and Schottky-Enabled Photoemission

We report on investigations into the fundamental surface emission parameters, the geometric field enhancement factor (β) and the work function (φ), by making both field emission and Schottky-enabled photoemission measurements. The measurements were performed on a copper surface in the Tsinghua University S-band RF gun in two separate experiments. Fitting our data to the models for each experiment indicate that the traditionally assumed high value of β(≈50-500) does not provide a plausible explanation of the data, but incorporating a low value of φ at some sites does. In addition, direct measurements of the surface conducted after the experiment show that β is on the order of a few, consistent with our understanding of the electron emission measurements. Thus we conclude that the dominant source of electron emission in high gradient RF cavities is due to low φ sites, as opposed to the conventionally assumed high β sites. The origin of low φ at these sites is unclear and should be the subject of further investigation.

Numerical study of a magnetically insulated front-end channel for a neutrino factory

A neutrino factory, which can deliver an intense flux of $\ensuremath{\sim}{10}^{21}$ neutrinos per year from a multi-GeV stored muon beam, is seemingly the ideal tool for studying neutrino oscillations and $CP$ violations for leptons. The front end of this facility plays a critical role in determining the number of muons that can be accepted by the downstream accelerators. Delivering peak performance requires transporting the muon beams through long sections of a beam channel containing high-gradient rf cavities and strong focusing solenoids. Here, we propose a novel scheme to improve the performance of the cavities, thereby increasing the number of muons within the acceptance of the accelerator chain. The key element of our new scheme is to apply a tangential magnetic field to the rf surfaces, thus forcing any field-emitted electrons to return to the surface before gaining enough energy to damage the cavity. We incorporate this idea into a new lattice design for a neutrino factory, and detail its performance numerically. Although our proposed front-end channel requires more rf power than conventional pillbox designs, it provides enough beam cooling and muon production to be a feasible option for a neutrino factory.

Rf breakdown with external magnetic fields in 201 and 805 MHz cavities

Neutrino factory and muon collider cooling lattices require both high gradient rf cavities and strong focusing solenoids. Experiments have shown that there may be serious problems operating rf in the required magnetic fields. Experimental observations using vacuum rf cavities in magnetic fields are discussed, current published models of breakdown with and without magnetic fields are briefly summarized, and some of their predictions compared with observations. A new theory of magnetic field dependent breakdown is presented. It is proposed that electrons emitted by field emission on asperities on one side of a cavity are focused by the magnetic field to the other side where they induce mechanical fatigue leading to cavity surface damage in small spots. Metal is then electrostatically drawn from the molten spots, becomes vaporized and ionized by field emission from the remaining damage, and causes breakdown. The theory is fitted to existing 805 MHz data and predictions are made for performance at 201 MHz. The model predicts breakdown gradients significantly below those specified for either the International Scoping Study neutrino factory or a muon collider. Possible solutions to these problems are discussed, including designs for magnetically insulated rf in which the cavity walls are designed to be parallel to chosen magnetic field contour lines and consequently damage from field emission is expected to be suppressed. An experimental program that could study these problems and their possible solution is outlined. We also mention the use of high pressure gas as an alternative possible solution.

Smoothing RF cavities with gas cluster ions to mitigate high voltage breakdown

Many studies have demonstrated that improving the surface smoothness and cleanliness of high voltage electrodes increases the voltage standoff capability, but none have specifically investigated the role of nano-scale and atomic level surface roughness. Using AFM imaging, we have studied the effect of gas cluster ion beams (GCIB) on oxygen-free Cu electrode material that is used in high gradient RF cavities. Using Ar clusters accelerated by 30kV, with a dose of 6×1014ecm−2, we have effectively removed an asperity that was 3500Å wide and 350Å high. Subsequent processing with 5kV acceleration reduced the surface roughness from an Ra value of 13.2Å to 4.8Å. This demonstrates the effectiveness of GCIB for reducing sub-micron roughness to atom level smoothness.

Six-dimensional muon beam cooling using a homogeneous absorber: Concepts, beam dynamics, cooling decrements, and equilibrium emittances in a helical dipole channel

The fast reduction of the six-dimensional phase space of muon beams is an essential requirement for muon colliders and also of great importance for neutrino factories based on accelerated muon beams. Ionization cooling, where all momentum components are degraded by an energy absorbing material and only the longitudinal momentum is restored by rf cavities, provides a means to quickly reduce transverse beam sizes. However, the beam energy spread cannot be reduced by this method unless the longitudinal emittance can be transformed or exchanged into the transverse emittance. Emittance exchange plans until now have been accomplished by using magnets to disperse the beam along the face of a wedge-shaped absorber such that higher momentum particles pass through thicker parts of the absorber and thus suffer larger ionization energy loss. In the scheme advocated in this paper, a special magnetic channel designed such that higher momentum corresponds to a longer path length, and therefore larger ionization energy loss, provides the desired emittance exchange in a homogeneous absorber without special edge shaping. Normal-conducting rf cavities imbedded in the magnetic field regenerate the energy lost in the absorber. One very attractive example of a cooling channel based on this principle uses a series of high-gradient rf cavities filled with dense hydrogen gas, where the cavities are in a magnetic channel composed of a solenoidal field with superimposed helical transverse dipole and quadrupole fields. In this scheme, the energy loss, the rf energy regeneration, the emittance exchange, and the transverse cooling happen simultaneously. The theory of this helical channel is described in some detail to support the analytical prediction of almost a factor of ${10}^{6}$ reduction in six-dimensional phase space volume in a channel about 56 m long. Equations describing the particle beam dynamics are derived and beam stability conditions are explored. Equations describing six-dimensional cooling in this channel are also derived, including explicit expressions for cooling decrements and equilibrium emittances.

MICE: The international Muon Ionization Cooling Experiment

The MICE collaboration has designed an experiment made by a section of an ionization cooling channel equipped with particle detectors used as beam diagnostics stations. The channel uses liquid-hydrogen absorbers to provide energy loss and high-gradient RF cavities to re-accelerate the particles; this setup is designed to reduce the beam transverse emittance by >10% for muon momenta in the range 140MeV/c to 240MeV/c. The particle detectors, grouped in two spectrometers before and after the channel, are meant to measure the beam transmittance and emittance reduction with an absolute precision of ± 0.1%.

The radiation environment in and near high gradient rf cavities

Measurements of the X-ray flux, electron flux and spectrum are presented with the aim of evaluating the usefulness of ionization sensitive single particle detectors in the immediate environment of an rf cavity. The measured fluxes are found to be roughly consistent with field emission of electrons followed by one generation of bremsstrahlung photon production, with absorption and scattering of the final photons and electrons in the cavity and vacuum chamber structure.

Physics design of the high brightness linac for the advanced free-electron laser initiative at Los Alamos

Abstract Free-electron lasers and high energy physics accelerators have increased the demand for very high brightness electron-beam sources. This paper describes the design of an accelerator that can produce beams of greater than 7×10 11 A/m 2 (brightness equal to 21/ϵ 2 , with ϵ = 90% normalized emittance, equivalent to four times the rms emittance). The beam emittance growth in the accelerator is minimized by: producing a short electron bunch in a high gradient rf cavity, using a focusing solenoid to correct the emittance growth caused by space charge, and designing the coupling slots between accelerator cavities to minimize quadrupole effects. The simulation code PARMELA was modified for this design effort. This modified version uses SUPERFISH output files for the accelerator cavity fields, MAFIA output files for the 3-D perturbation fields caused by the coupling slots in the accelerator cells, and POISSON output files for the solenoid field in the gun region. The results from simulations are, at 2.3 nC, a peak current of 180 A and a 90% emittance of 6.4π mm mrad, and, at 4 nC a peak current of 300 A and a 90% emittance of 9.4π mrad. The exit energy from the linac is 20 MeV for both cases. A magnetic pulse compressor can be used to further increase the peak current.