High Oil-water Separation Efficiency Research Articles

Facile preparation of UiO-66-NH2-coated mesh membrane with underwater superoleophobicity for high efficiency oil-water separation

The metal organic framework (MOF) polycrystalline membranes on stainless steel mesh (SSM) are urgently required for effective oil-water separation, but the affordable preparation still remains a challenge. Herein, we report a series of UiO-66-NH2/SSM films, which are developed by a rational ‘seeding-assisted secondary growth’ method. Results depict that the proposed method greatly shortens the synthesis time, and helps to achieve a continuous and uniform modification of UiO-66-NH2 on SSM, and hence contributes to a superior hydrophilicity and superoleophobicity for UiO-66-NH2/SSM with minimum water contact angle of 32° and maximum underwater oil contact angle of 150°, respectively. Specifically, the UiO-66-NH2/SSM-600–2 has total permeation fluxes and separation efficiencies of ca. 8.4×104 L·m−2·h−1 and 100% for the n-hexane-, petroleum ether- and chloroform-water emulsions (1% volume ratio), which exceed numerous polycrystalline membranes reported so far. It also exhibits a great durability with only 0.1% loss of separation efficiency after 8 cycles. Furthermore, outstanding acid-resistivity and salt-tolerance are also presented. Our work supplies a new strategy to construct UiO-66-NH2/SSM, and the decent properties confirm a huge potential for practical use in oil-water separation.

Anti-fouling underwater superoleophobic membranes based on hierarchical double networks for high efficiency oil–water separation

Oil fouling is a key problem of superwettable oil–water separation membranes because the membranes are inevitably susceptible to varying degrees of oil contamination during the ongoing separation processes, which usually results in a severe impact on separation performance. Consequently, it is a great challenge to construct oil-removal membranes with superior resistance to oil contamination. Herein, we fabricated hierarchical double networks (HDT)-modified porous glass membrane with superhydrophilicity/underwater superhydrophobicity. Firstly, a layer of silicone nanofilament (SNF) network bearing tremendous C = C double bonds were fabricated on a porous glass membrane surface by one-step chemical vapor deposition (CVD) using vinyltrichlorosilane (VTCS) as a precursor. Subsequently, the second network layer was constructed by copolymerization of the C = C double bonds on the SNF network and those in sulfobetaine-derived monomer (sulfobetaine methacrylate, SBMA), using N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide (MBA) as the cross-linkering agent. It was observed that the obtained HDT-modified glass membranes displayed excellent superhydrophilicity/underwater superhydrophobicity accompanied with superior self-cleaning performance and oil-resistance properties. As a result, the HDT-modified membranes showed high separation flux and high efficiency for both oil/water mixtures (7500 L m−2h−1, above 99.98 %) and surfactant-stabilized oil-in-water emulsions (1100 L m−2h−1, above 99.96 %) with excellent cyclability. The outstanding advantages with characteristics of excellent oil resistance and superior separation performance enable the HDT-modified glass membrane promising applications in a wide range of industries related to oil–water separations.

Stabilized superhydrophobic composite membranes prepared by electrospinning for oil–water separation

AbstractIn dealing with the oil–water separation process, improving the oil–water selectivity of the membrane surface and increasing the porosity within the membrane are effective means to achieve durable and efficient oil–water separation. Therefore, polystyrene/polyacrylonitrile‐polyvinylidene fluoride/Polydimethylsiloxane Fe3O4 nanoparticles (PS/PAN‐PVDF/PDMS@Fe3O4) composite membranes with superhydrophobicity and lipophilicity were prepared by electrospinning technique. By controlling the filling concentration of Fe3O4 nanoparticles, a stable superhydrophobic and lipophilic rough structure was constructed, and micro–nano multilayer rough voids existed inside the membrane. The results showed that the composite fiber membrane exhibited exceptional superhydrophobicity (156.2°), thermal stability (338°C), mechanical properties (tensile strength of 3.0 MPa, elongation of 33.9%), and oil adsorption capacity (30–100 g/g). Moreover, even under corrosive environments, this composite fiber membrane maintained its superhydrophobic properties (above 152°) and achieved high oil–water separation efficiency (above 97%). Remarkably, after 40 cycles, the composite membrane could sustain a separation flux of 5000 L m−2 h−1. Consequently, the composite fiber membrane manufactured using this strategy exhibits promising potential for applications in oil–water separation.

Preparation of superhydrophobic membranes with ultraviolet‐absorbing capacity for oil–water separation by electrospinning

AbstractTo address the escalating issue of oily wastewater, separation membranes with special wettability on the surface are widely used in oil–water separation. The development of separation membranes with not only stable separation flux but also anti‐fouling properties is an urgent problem. Therefore, polystyrene/polyacrylonitrile‐polyvinylidene fluoride/polydimethylsiloxane‐titanium dioxide nanoparticle (PS/PAN‐PVDF/PDMS@TiO2) composite membranes with superhydrophobicity and lipophilicity were prepared by electrospinning technique. By changing the doping amount of TiO2 nanoparticles, the multilevel rough structure was constructed on the surface, and the transformation of the Ti–O–C chemical bond to the Si–O–Ti chemical bond was realized inside the composite membrane. The results showed that the composite membrane had excellent superhydrophobicity (154.9°) and mechanical properties (tensile strength of 3.54 MPa, elongation of 60.95%). The membrane can absorb ultraviolet light and exhibits enhanced resistance to fouling when exposed to visible‐UV light. Additionally, the composite membrane demonstrates an adsorption capacity of 30–100 g/g for a wide range of oils. In corrosive environments, the composite membrane maintains superhydrophobicity (above 150°) and achieves high oil–water separation efficiency (97%). After 40 cycles, the separation flux of 6000 L.h−1 m−2 can be maintained. Hence, superhydrophobic oleophilic composite membranes with a stable separation flux and resistance to fouling can be employed in the field of oil–water separation.Highlights PS/PAN‐PVDF/PDMS@TiO2 composite membrane with multilevel rough structure. PS/PAN‐PVDF/PDMS@TiO2 composite membrane with excellent UV absorption and self‐cleaning ability. PS/PAN‐PVDF/PDMS@TiO2 composite membrane with stable oil–water separation efficiency in harsh environments.

Preparation of bio-based porous material with high oil adsorption capacity from bio-polyurethane and sugarcane bagasse.

This work presents the fabrication of bio-based porous material for highly efficient removing of oil from oil/water system. The sunflower oil-based polyol was synthesized and then used to replace the petro-polyol in the simultaneous preparation of a sugarcane bagasse-polyurethane composite (SC-PU composite) by inserting sugarcane fiber filler into the PU matrix. The bio-polyol was obtained from sunflower oil with a hydroxyl number of 182 mg KOH g-1, and functionality of 3.5 OH groups per mol. The bio-polyol and the newly designed bio-based SC-PU composite were characterized by NMR, FT-IR and SEM analysis. The effect of several parameters such as bio-polyol/petro-polyol ratio, dosage of adding sugarcane fiber and size of filler particles on oil adsorption capacity of a new sorbent material were also investigated. Oil sorption capacity of the newly designed sorbent was relatively high, up to 15.2 g g-1 when 20% sugarcane bagasse with a particle size of 1 mm was added into the bio-polyurethane matrix. This is nearly four times higher than that of neat PU foam without the biomass filler and lignocellulosic materials. This finding demonstrated the importance of selecting the right components to fabricate a cost-effective, highly renewable and biodegradable sorbent with high oil-water separation efficiency, reducing the use of chemicals from fossil sources.

A novel coalescing material for high efficiency oil-water separation

Among numerous oil-water separation materials, coalescence materials have received widespread attention. In this work, we prepared a lotus leaf-shaped Janus coalescing material by physically mixing polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) first, pressing it into sheets, then single-face hydrophilic modifying by chemical oxidation method, followed by pressing into a lotus leaf shape. Finally, holes were physically punched at the upper and lower sides of the coalescing material to let the oil drops pass through freely, greatly reducing the time for oil droplets to float. The shape of lotus leaves could provide more opportunities for oil droplets to collide and coalesce. The coalescing materials had asymmetric wettability, with specific surfaces that were oleophilic on the one hand and hydrophilic on the other. The oil droplets adhered to the oleophilic side of the coalescing material, coalesced and grew, then floated up and passed through the coalescing sheet layer by layer until they reached the oil collecting port to realize oil-water separation. The structural parameters of the coalescing material were progressively optimized. The obtained coalescing material exhibited a high oil-water separation efficiency of 99.40 ± 0.5% with good stability during a 48 h continuous oil-water separation, which provided a reference for the development of efficient coalescing materials.

Fabrication of multifunctional cotton fabric with “pompon mum” shaped surface by ZIF-8 for applications in oil-water separation and anti-icing

The application of metal organic framework materials (MOFs) in superhydrophobic modification has a broad prospect. In this work, a multifunctional flexible superhydrophobic cotton fabric (PSZDC) with no fluorine, high oil-water separation efficiency, and excellent anti-icing performance was prepared through the modification of cotton fabric by dopamine (DA), ZIF-8, stearic acid (SA) and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). SEM and 3D ultra-depth of field stereo microscope results revealed the unique “pompon mum” shaped surface of PSZDC. ATR-FTIR, XRD, and XPS analyses confirmed the composition of the hydrophobic layer. PSZDC had a water contact angle of 165.4° and showed stability in mechanical robustness and chemical resistance tests. The oil-water separation efficiency of PSZDC was close to 100 %, and the permeation flux was as high as 36,000 (L·m−2h−1). PSZDC also exhibited excellent effect in anti-icing test, which was expected to be used as ice rescue suits and oil-water separation materials. In addition, this method was universal and repeatable, as evidenced by its application to four common fabrics: nylon-6, polyester, wool, and silk.

Durable underwater super-oleophobic/super-hydrophilic conductive polymer membrane for oil-water separation.

Oily sewage has made serious impact on environment and people's life, and its treatment has become a global problem to be urgently solved. Oil-water separation has been considered to be an effective method to treat oily sewage at present. In this work, an underwater super-oleophobic/super-hydrophilic membrane with oil-water separation and self-cleaning properties was fabricated by electrochemical oxidation of sodium lignosulfonate doped polypyrrole. The membrane showed super-hydrophilicity for water-removal in air and super-hydrophilicity for oil-removal underwater in both oxidation and reduction states. The oil-water separation efficiency of the membranes for different organics exceeded 98.44%, no matter in oxidation or reduction state. Moreover, the membrane still exhibited excellent performance in terms of the oil-water separation efficiency and flux after 70 cycles, which were greater than 97.18% and 70.14 L·m-2·h-1, respectively. Simultaneously, through exploration of the mechanism, it was found that the larger anion kept intact in the membrane during the redox process, which made the stability of composition and performance. Thus, the membrane with advantageous properties, including underwater super-oleophobic/super-hydrophilicity, high oil-water separation efficiency, high circulating rate and stability, has significant potential in separation and collection of oily sewage.

Swan feather-spired fluorine-free superhydrophobic self-cleaning cotton cloth with strong oil-water separation function

With the increasing demand of oil-water separation, superhydrophobic materials have garnered tremendous research attention due to their excellent oil-water separation efficiency. However, the biological toxicity and poor durability of fluorine-containing compounds in superhydrophobic materials severely restrict their application. In this work, inspired by the superhydrophobic/lipophilic swan feathers, we proposed a two-stage thiol-ene click reaction strategy to fabricate a fluorine-free superhydrophobic and super-lipophilic oil/water separation membrane (Cotton-S-PB-SiO2). Firstly, based on this thiol-ene click reaction, the rubber molecular chain 1,2-polybutadiene (1,2-PB) with low surface energy was coated with cotton fiber through chemical bonds. Subsequently, the coated cotton fiber was employed to establish chemical bonds with silica. The Cotton-S-PB-SiO2 possessed low surface energy and abundant micro-nano structures. Meanwhile, the Cotton-S-PB-SiO2 showed extremely high wettability selectivity to water and oil phases. The flux reached 44,554 L m−2 h−1, and the separation efficiency for immiscible oil/water mixtures was above 99.9 %. More remarkably, the Cotton-S-PB-SiO2 demonstrated excellent anti-fouling and operation stability even under some harsh environments such as strong acid, alkali, salt, etc. The prepared self-cleaning cotton cloth provides insights toward mild, low-cost and high-efficiency oil-water separation.

Electrospun nanoscale bent fibrous membrane with controllable porous structure and hydrophilic modification for high-efficiency oil-water separation, particle/bacterial filtration and antibacterial applications

Electrospun nanofiber membranes' pore structure and hydrophilicity are essential for water filtration. Pore size may be efficiently lowered in this work by decreasing the fiber diameter, changing the fiber morphology, and constructing a silicon hybrid hydrophilic coating. The hydrophilic nanofiber membranes have a small pore size (0.72 μm) and an extremely low diameter (73.5 nm). Meanwhile, the synergistic combination of catechol (CA) and tannic acid (TA) with γ-(2, 3-epoxypropyl) propyl trimethoxysilane (KH560) resulted in the formation of a homogenous silicon hybrid hydrophilic coating on the surface of the fiber membrane. The hydrophilic nanofiber membrane has an outstanding hydrophilicity (WCA = 28.3°), excellent oil-in-water emulsion separation efficiency (>99.0%), extremely high particle filtration efficiency (>99.0%), and an LRV value of more than 7.50 for Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). At 6.0 mg/mL, the antibacterial efficiency was 80% against E. coli and 96% against S. aureus. The preparation of such hydrophilic membranes can provide a novel strategy for high-quality design and development that can be applied to various water filtration applications.

Attapulgite-based nanofiber membrane with oriented channels for high-efficiency oil-water separation

Nanofiber membranes are distinguished for their high porosity and interconnected pore structures. However, their separation application and performances are affected by irregular pore structures which are formed by the randomly packing of nanofibers. Herein, we report a facile approach to produce nanofiber membranes with oriented channels, narrow pore size, and low tortuosity. The membranes show a bi-layered structure where magnetic attapulgite (mATP) nanofiber layers are directly supported on macroporous Al2O3 substrates. The mATP layers are prepared by drop-coating suspensions on top of the substrates pre-filled with water, and the ordered pore structures are formed at the presence of a magnetic field. Compared with the unordered membranes, average pore size of the ordered membranes reduces from 0.45 to 0.28 μm, with the water permeance increase from 1007 to 1121 L m−2 h−1·bar−1. Moreover, the stationary flux of ordered membranes increase by 59% with the retention to oil-in-water emulsion increase from 98.7% to 99.2%. Analysis of membrane fouling using the Hermia model shows that the ordered membrane can reduce membrane blocking and thus facilitate membrane cleaning and restore of separation performance.

Fabrication of ZnO/PDA/GO composite membrane for high efficiency oil–water separation

Fabrication of ZnO/PDA/GO composite membrane for high efficiency oil–water separation

Enhanced hydrophobicity of shell-ligand-exchanged ZIF-8/melamine foam for excellent oil-water separation

Oil and organic solvent spills have caused serious environmental issues. To address these issues, several novel materials have been developed for the efficient separation of oil/organic solvents from water. In this study, ZIF-8 was loaded onto a melamine foam (MF) skeleton a simple in situ growth method. ZIF-8/MF was modified via a shell-ligand-exchange reaction (SLER) to improve its hydrophobicity. The prepared D-ZIF-8/MF exhibited strong hydrophobicity, with a WCA of 145.1° and an OCA of 0°. D-ZIF-8/MF can absorb up to 68–165 times its weight in oil/organic solvents. D-ZIF-8/MF also exhibited excellent stability, corrosion resistance, recovery, and recyclability. Furthermore, D-ZIF-8/MF has a high oil-water separation efficiency for absorbing organic solvents through a continuous oil-water separation device. This study provides a novel strategy for the preparation of strong hydrophobic foams via surface modification and SLER for oil-water separation. It has immense potential for the scale-up practical treatment of oily wastewater.

Rational design of self-cleaning superhydrophobic coating with outstanding abrasion resistance and weatherability: Towards highly efficient oil-water separation and anti-corrosion application

The importance of superhydrophobic coating in modern industries cannot be overstated. However, conventional superhydrophobic coatings are challenged by poor mechanical stability, single functionality, and toxic content (fluorine element), which pose a challenge to the large-scale use of superhydrophobic coatings. Herein, a MOF-based superhydrophobic coating is proposed, which is constructed by introducing self-designed small-molecule resins combined with modified ZIF-8 particles through a one-step spraying method. Notably, the coating exhibits excellent superhydrophobicity (CA = 169.05°, SA = 3.7°), mechanical stability (CA > 155° after 200 cm of wear), high oil-water separation efficiencies (for oil-water mixture separation efficiency up to 98.57 %) and satisfactory anti-corrosion property. The superior performance of the coating comes from the layer-by-layer structure formed by the γ-AP resin-coated ZIF-8 particles after curing, which the silicone in the resin forms a dense cross-linked network on the surface of the coating. In summary, ZIF-8/HDTMS/γ-AP coating not only has the advantages of a simple preparation process, wide application range, and no secondary pollution but also has excellent mechanical properties, high oil-water separation efficiency, and satisfactory corrosion resistance, which can provide new ideas to expand the application scope of superhydrophobic coating.

Novel Engineered Carbon Cloth-Based Self-Cleaning Membrane for High-Efficiency Oil-Water Separation.

A novel engineered carbon cloth (CC)-based self-cleaning membrane containing a Cu:TiO2 and Ag coating has been created via hydrothermal and light deposition methods. The engineered membrane with chrysanthemum morphology has superhydrophilic and underwater superoleophilic performance. The cooperativity strategy of Cu doping and Ag coating to the TiO2 is found to be critical for engineering the separation efficiency and self-cleaning skill of the CC-based membrane under visible light due to the modulated bandgap structure and surface plasmon resonance. The CC-based membrane has excellent oil-water separation performance when Cu is fixed at 2.5 wt% and the Ag coating reaches a certain amount of 0.003 mol/L AgNO3. The contact angle of underwater oil and the separation efficiency are 156° and 99.76%, respectively. Furthermore, the membrane has such an outstanding self-cleaning ability that the above performance can be nearly completely restored after 30 min of visible light irradiation, and the separation efficiency can still reach 99.65% after 100 cycles. Notably, the membrane with exceptional wear resistance and durability can work in various oil-water mixtures and harsh environments, indicating its potential as a new platform of the industrial-level available membrane in dealing with oily wastewater.

One-pot preparation of superhydrophobic lignocellulose composites and their oil-water separation properties

ABSTRACT Lignocellulose is a kind of renewable material with stable structure and abundant reserves. The superhydrophobic lignocellulose composites prepared by one-pot method in this study had the advantages of pollution-free, stable structure and simple processes. The prepared superhydrophobic lignocellulose composites exhibited superhydrophobic-superoleophilic wettability, with a water contact angle (CA) of 157° ± 3.6° and an oil CA of about 0°. Abrasion and ultraviolet (UV) radiation experiments demonstrated that the prepared composites had good mechanical stability and UV resistance. In addition, the composites presented an ultra-fast oil absorption rate and high oil-water separation efficiency of more than 96% for various types of oil-water mixtures. And the maximum oil flux was greater than 6500 L·m−2h−1bar−1. Such superhydrophobic lignocellulose composites hold great application prospects in the field of oil-water separation.

Rational Design of PDA/P-PVDF@PP Janus Membrane with Asymmetric Wettability for Switchable Emulsion Separation.

Water pollution caused by oil spills or sewage discharges has become a serious ecological environmental issue. Despite the membrane separation technique having a promising application in wastewater purification, the membrane fabrication method and separation robustness have remained unsatisfactory until now. Herein, we developed a novel strategy, spacer-assisted sequential phase conversion, to create a patterned polyvinylidene fluoride@polypropylene (P-PVDF@PP) substrate membrane with a multiscale roughened surface. Based on that surface structure, the underwater oil resistance behavior of the P-PVDF@PP membrane was improved. Moreover, owing to the abundant active sites on the P-PVDF@PP surface, the polydopamine/P-PVDF@PP (PDA/P-PVDF@PP) Janus membrane could be readily fabricated via wet chemical modification, which exhibited excellent switchable oil-water separation performance. Regarding surfactant-stabilized oil-water emulsion, the as-prepared PDA/P-PVDF@PP Janus membrane also had robust separation efficiency (as high as 99% in the n-hexane/water, chloroform/water, and toluene/water emulsion separation cases) and desirable reusability. Finally, the underlying mechanism of emulsion separation in the PDA/P-PVDF@PP Janus membrane was specified. The as-designed PDA/P-PVDF@PP Janus membrane with high-efficiency oil-water separation shows potential application in oily wastewater treatment, and the developed fabrication method has implications for the fabrication of advanced separation membranes.

Underwater superoleophobic GO-PEI-SiO2-Hal quaternary sphere-rod nacre-inspired mesh by LBL self-assembly for high-efficiency oil-water separation

The easy preparation of robust superwetting materials for oily wastewater disposal still remains a challenge. Inspired by the self-cleaning and mechanical properties of natural nacre underwater, herein, we have successfully developed sphere-rod quaternary artificial nacre-inspired meshes (named GO-PEI-SiO2-Hal) via interfacial self-assembly using 2D graphene oxide nanosheets, hyperbranched polyethyleneimine, SiO2 nanospheres, and hollow halloysite nanotubes (Hal) as the building blocks. The nacre-like “brick-and-mortar” layered microstructure was successfully formed and tightly coated to the mesh, showing excellent mechanical properties with Young's modulus up to 19.7 ± 2.6 GPa. Compared to the ternary structures, the quaternary sphere-rod morphology improved the surface roughness, and these four organic/inorganic building blocks are all hydrophilic, which together resulted in the superhydrophilic and underwater superoleophobic characteristics. The effects of building block concentration, dipping number, and mesh size on wettability and oil-water separation performance were studied in detail. The optimal (GO-PEI-SiO2-Hal-1)15@Fe300 mesh showed an underwater oil contact angle of 159o for 1,2-dichloroethane, low oil adhesion, and excellent separation efficiency up to 99.8% at an ultrahigh flux up to 195,038 L m−2 h−1. This nacre-like mesh exhibited excellent salt tolerance, acid-alkali resistance, recycling ability, and mechanical properties for practical oily wastewater treatment.

High-hydrophobic ZIF-67@PLA honeycomb aerogel for efficient oil–water separation

The ZIF-67 @PLA honeycomb aerogel was formulated by using the metal–organic frame (MOF) ZIF-67 through physical mixing and heat-induced phase separation interaction. Changing the mass fraction ratio of ZIF-67 in aerogels can effectively adjust the pore size, pore surface unevenness, and specific surface area of pure polylactic acid (PLA) aerogels. In comparison to PLA aerogels, the ZIF-67 @PLA honeycomb aerogels showed greater oil wettability combined with a notable increase in mechanical characteristics. In this paper, the morphology, oil adsorption capacity, oil wettability, oil–water separation ability and sample reuse of composite aerogels were studied in depth. The ZIF-67 @PLA aerogel with 3 wt% ZIF-67 has the highest oil wettability, highest oil–water separation function, maximum specific area and good reusability. Compared to pure PLA, which has a tensile strength and elongation at break of 0.1424 MPa and 13%, ZIF-67 @PLA has a tensile strength and elongation at break of 0.3344 MPa and 15%, respectively. After 20 cycles, the separation flux of ZIF-67 @PLA is still 98% of the initial flux. The experimental results show that the use of MOF as a nanofiller-filled pure PLA aerogel exhibits high oil wettability and has been demonstrated to be an ideal material for high-efficiency oil–water separation.

Hyper cross-linked poly(ionic liquid)s with special anions as “smart materials” for switchable oil-water separation

Smart materials with superhydrophobic-superlipophobic switchability can selectively penetrate one phase (oil or water) through the surface, and the other is trapped. In this study, several super wetting materials were fabricated based on the modulation of Friedel–Crafts alkylation and ion exchange on hyper cross-linked poly(ionic liquid)s (HCPILs) properties. They showed high oil-water separation efficiency in different complex environments. These synthetic HCPILs exhibit different hydrophilicity or lipophilicity when containing various anions. In particular, the HCPIL with a hexafluorophosphate (HCPIL-PF6) or a bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (HCPIL-TF2N) possesses a switchable super wetting property due to its unique surface structure and chemical composition. They can be freely switched between hyperhydrophilicity and hyperlipophilicity according to the corresponding solvent changes and are suitable for separating many oil-water mixtures, especially the emulsions. The respective separation flux of the oil-water mixture or lotion is up to 9450 L/m2·h and 800.32 L/m2·h. Besides, they have strong durability and stability in harsh environments such as high concentrations of salt, acid, and basic solutions. After dozens of cycles, they can maintain efficient oil-water separation efficiency and exhibit a high underwater oil contact angle or underoil water contact angle. Such smart materials have great potential in various practical applications, providing a significant idea for future continuous production.