High Concentrations Of Nonylphenol Research Articles

Response of microbial community and biological nitrogen removal to the accumulation of nonylphenol in sequencing batch reactor.

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13762-023-04825-9.

Multigenerational reproduction and developmental toxicity, and HPG axis gene expression study on environmentally-relevant concentrations of nonylphenol in zebrafish

Nonylphenol (NP) is a toxic xenobiotic compound, which is persistent in the aquatic environment and is extremely toxic to aquatic organisms. Although the exact molecular mechanisms of its toxic effect are well understood, the multigenerational reproduction and multigenerational - gene expression changes caused by NP still remain unclear. The following work investigated the effect of NP on four consecutive generations of zebrafish by examining their growth and several reproductive parameters, the degree of gonad damage, and the expression of related reproduction related genes. The results showed that high concentrations (20 and 200 μg·L−1) of NP could decrease growth and induce gonad damage in zebrafish. In addition, gnrh2 and gnrh3 genes were up-regulated, and fshβ and lhβ genes were downregulated in the hypothalamus in male zebrafish; while in female fish, the fshβ and lhβ were upregulated in P and F1 generations, and then down-regulated in the F2 generation. Meanwhile, the cyp19a1a gene was downregulated in the gonad of male fish, while the genes of fshr, lhr and esr showed a downward trend in females. Compared to P generation, F2 generation was more tolerant to higher NP concentrations (20 and 200 μg·L−1), as was also more sensitive to lower concentrations of NP (2 μg·L−1). Consequently, stress and damage caused by environmentally-relevant concentrations of aquatic pollutants in a vertebrate model were measured and predicted. Prevention and control measures can be actively and effectively proposed, which might be transversal to other exposed organisms, including humans. After several generations, typical transgenerational genetic phenomena might occur, which should be addressed by further studies.

Bioaccumulation, growth performance, and transcriptomic response of Dictyosphaerium sp. after exposure to nonylphenol

Algal cultures of Dictyosphaerium sp. were treated with a wide range (0–8 mg/L) of nonylphenol (NP) applications to investigate the species' potential to perform bioremediation of NP-contaminated wastewater and explore the mechanism of NP toxicity in algal cell. The algal species exhibited a high tolerance for NP and efficiently removed even high concentrations of NP. The accumulation of NP in algal cells tended to increase and the percentage of NP adhered to the cell walls tended to decrease as the NP concentration increased. The thylakoid density and the pyrenoid size also tended to decrease as the NP concentration rose. The key genes involved in the antioxidative pathways and photosynthetic pathways were down-regulated in the NP-treated algal cells. Algal ribosome genes were especially sensitive to NP. The results indicated that NP could induce oxidative stress in algal cells and that Dictyosphaerium sp. showed potential as a bioremediation agent.

Long-term exposure to waterborne nonylphenol alters reproductive physiological parameters in economically important marine fish

Low concentrations of nonylphenol (NP) in aquatic environment can induce drastic effects on the endocrine system in animals. In this study, we examined the modulatory effects of NP on reproductive and physiological parameters in juveniles of the red seabream and black rockfish following waterborne NP exposure (0, 1, 10, and 50 μg L−1) for 60 days. In red seabream exposed to 50 μg L−1 NP, plasma levels of 17β-estradiol (E2) and 11-ketotestosterone (11-KT) were significantly lower at 30 and 60 days, while E2 levels were slightly higher in 10 μg L−1-exposed individuals at day 30. Similarly, significantly lower levels of E2 and 11-KT were observed in 10 and 50 μg L−1-exposed black rockfish at 60 days, whereas the E2 level was higher in 1 μg L−1-exposed individuals at day 30. After exposure to NP, plasma and mRNA levels of vitellogenin (VTG) were significantly higher in both species at 30 and 60 days, similar to the inducible effects from synthetic estrogen. Plasma cortisol levels were significantly elevated by relatively higher concentrations of NP (10 and 50 μg L−1) at 30 and 60 days. Finally, 60 days of exposure of 50 μg L−1 NP significantly decreased the gonadosomatic index (GSI) and increased the hepatosomatic index (HSI) in both species. The results obtained from this study provide an evidence of the endocrine disrupting potential of waterborne NP on early stages of economically important marine fish. The NP-triggered endocrine modulation can induce effects on the development of reproductive and metabolic organs in fish species.

Regulation of nonylphenol-induced reproductive toxicity in mouse spermatogonia cells by miR-361-3p.

Nonylphenol (NP) is an environmental chemical that affects apoptosis and male infertility. In our study, we found that a high concentration of NP could down-regulate the expression of microRNA-361-3p (miR-361-3p) in the murine GC-1 spermatogonia cell line and in vivo in murine spermatogonia. Additionally, one direct target of this miR, the 3' untranslated region of Killin (Klln) mRNA, was identified. Klln encodes a transcription factor that directly regulates the expression of Tp73 (transcriptionally active p73), whose encoded protein can up-regulate the expression of Puma (p53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis). Thus, our investigation revealed that the expression of Klln, Tp73, and Puma increased upon NP-dependent down-regulation of miR-361-3p, which eventually leads to apoptosis of spermatogonia.

Distribution and bioaccumulation of endocrine disrupting chemicals in water, sediment and fishes in a shallow Chinese freshwater lake: Implications for ecological and human health risks

The occurrence, distribution and bioaccumulation of six endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) were investigated in water, sediment and biota samples from Luoma Lake, a shallow Chinese freshwater lake. Total concentrations of ∑phenolic EDCs were much higher than ∑estrogens EDCs in both waters and sediments. There were not obvious differences on the concentrations of target compounds [except nonylphenol (NP)] in upstream, lake and downstream locations, these may be suggested that they were mainly affected by non-point discharges in this area. However, the high concentration of NP in water may be associated with the discharge of rural domestic wastewater without thorough treatment. Furthermore, concentrations of NP were about 2–3 order magnitude higher than those of OP in both water and sediment compartments. Relatively higher bioaccumulation factors (BAF) were obtained for DES and EE2. Ecological risk assessment revealed greater risk of NP in surface water, which may pose a serious threat to aquatic ecosystems. The estrogen equivalent concentration (EEQ) of male were higher than those in female, and occurred in the order of city >rural-urban>countryside.

Antioxidant responses of different microalgal species to nonylphenol-induced oxidative stress

The antioxidant responses of four green microalgae, i.e., Chlorella vulgaris, Chlorella sp., Selenastrum capricornutum and Scenedesmus quadricauda, under control, low (0.1 mg L−1) and high (1.0 mg L−1) nonylphenol (NP) concentration were studied. The antioxidant responses of microalgae to NP depended on both NP concentrations and exposure time. The effects of NP on antioxidant responses were most obvious on the first day of exposure and the effects decreased with prolonged exposure time. At low NP concentration, there were no significant changes in activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POD), or in glutathione (GSH) content, in all four species, while high concentration of NP led to different changes in these parameters. In NP-tolerant species, i.e., C. vulgaris and Chlorella sp., activities of SOD, CAT and POD increased remarkably when exposed to high NP concentration, while the increase was less evident or insignificant in Se. capricornutum and Sc. quadricauda, the two NP-sensitive species. On the other hand, the malondialdehyde (MDA) content declined gradually with increase in NP concentrations, particularly in C. vulgaris and Chlorella sp. Similarly, NP exposure caused an inhibition of glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activity in all four species. However, the changes of glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity did not seem to correlate with the NP tolerance of microalgae. These results suggested that various antioxidant mechanisms were involved in microalgae when exposed to NP, and the NP-tolerant species displayed more evident and rapid changes in some antioxidant responses than the NP-sensitive ones.

Effects of Nonylphenol on the Enzyme Activity of SOD in Shrimp (<i>Neocaridina heteropoda</i>)

The effects of different concentrations of nonylphenol on Neocaridina heteropoda were studied through testing the Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) activity in the muscle of N. heteropoda under the nonylphenol stress, then explored the relationship of the time that was N. heteropoda exposed nonylphenol and the in vivo physiological indicators. Results showed the following conclusion: in a certain range, higher concentrations of nonylphenol had heavier influence on SOD activity of shrimps; shrimps were infected significantly when they were exposed to the same concentration of nonylphenol in 2 days; the influence was reduced to the shrimp with the prolonging of time.

Characteristics of nonylphenol and bisphenol A accumulation by fish and implications for ecological and human health

Fish populations constitute an important part of aquatic ecosystems. Thus, their accumulation of nonylphenol (NP) and bisphenol A (BPA) may pose risks to ecosystems and human health. This study analyzed the concentrations of NP and BPA in four types of fishes (i.e., wild/farmed freshwater fishes and wild/farmed marine fishes). Wild freshwater fishes contained higher concentrations of NP and BPA than the other three types of fishes. The concentrations of NP in the wild freshwater fishes ranged from 1.01 to 277μg/kg ww, with bioconcentration factors (BCFs) and biota–sediment accumulation factors (BSAFs) ranging from 74.0 to 2.60×104L/kg and from 0.003 to 18.3, respectively. The wild freshwater fishes contained relatively low amounts of BPA, varying from ND to 25.2μg/kg ww, with the BCFs and BSAFs ranging from 1.00 to 274L/kg and from 0.003 to 3.40, respectively. Five fish species particularly showed high BCFs and BSAFs, indicating that they could be an important source of NP for higher trophic levels, most likely resulting in ecological risks. The demersal fishes showed a greater ability to accumulate NP than the pelagic ones. The fact that the 95th percentile values of the risk quotient (RQ) for NP and BPA were higher than the acceptable threshold indicated that these two compounds would have adverse effects on aquatic organisms in Taiwanese rivers. The consumption of wild marine fishes had the highest 95th percentile values of hazard quotient (HQ) for NP and BPA among the four types of fishes, particularly for the population aged 0–3years. However, the 95th percentile values of HQ for NP and BPA were all less than 1, suggesting that exposure to NP and BPA through fish consumption posed no remarkable risk to human health in Taiwan.

Spatial–temporal distribution and potential ecological risk assessment of nonylphenol and octylphenol in riverine outlets of Pearl River Delta, China

The aquatic environments of the Pearl River Delta in Southern China are subjected to contamination with various industrial chemicals from local industries. In this paper, the occurrence, seasonal variation and spatial distribution of alkylphenol octylphenol (OP) and nonylphenol (NP) in river surface water and sediments in the runoff outlets of the Pearl River Delta were investigated. NP and OP were detected in all water and sediment samples and their mean concentrations in surface water during the dry season ranged from 810 to 3366ng/L and 85.5 to 581ng/L, respectively, and those in sediments ranged from 14.2 to 95.2ng/g dw and 0.4 to 3.0ng/g dw, respectively. In surface water, much higher concentrations were detected in the dry season than those in the wet season. In sediments, the concentrations in the dry season were also mostly higher. High concentrations of NP and OP were found in Humen outlet, likely due to high levels of domestic and industrial wastewater discharges. An ecological risk assessment with the use of hazard quotient (HQ) was also carried out and the HQ values ranged from 3.6×10−5 to 35 and 64% of samples gave a HQ>1, indicating that the current levels of NP and OP pose a significant risk to the relevant aquatic organisms in the region.

Removal of surfactants nonylphenol ethoxylates from municipal sewage-comparison of an A/O process and biological aerated filters

The concentrations of nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPnEO, n=1 to 2) and nonylphenol (NP) in water and sludge samples were measured from a full scale sewage treatment plant (STP) with an Anaerobic/Oxic (A/O) and a Biological Aerated Filter (BAF) process. The A/O process was found to exhibit improved performance in comparison to the BAF process. Mean values of NP, NP1EO and NP2EO concentrations in influents from the STP were similar, ranging from 1.8 to 2.0×103ngL−1. In the A/O process, the removal efficiency of NP, NP1EO and NP2EO from the aqueous phase was 78%, 84%, and 89%, respectively. In contrast, the removal efficiencies of NP, NP1EO, and NP2EO were relatively lower for the BAF process, at 55%, 76%, and 79%, respectively. High concentrations of NP, NP1EO and NP2EO detected in the sludge samples had a maximum value of 2.7μgg−1 dw, which indicates that improvement in the overall elimination of NP, NP1EO and NP2EO may be associated with adsorption by the sludge. To further investigate the fate of NP, NP1EO and NP2EO in the STP, our research assessed the degradation characteristics of NP by calculating its transformational loss in the STP. The results demonstrate that the quantity of NP measured in the effluent from the oxic unit increased by 32%, which indicates that NP1EO and NP2EO may undergo degradation in the oxic conditions.

Accumulation of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in the polychaete Paraprionospio sp. from the Yodo River mouth, Osaka Bay, Japan

This study presents the levels of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) accumulated by Paraprionospio sp. from the Yodo River mouth, Osaka Bay. Since high concentrations of nonylphenol (NP), bisphenol A (BP), octylphenol (OP), 17β-estradiol (E2), and estrone (E1) have been measured in sediment from Osaka Bay, some bioaccumulation could be expected particularly in benthic animals. EDCs were analysed in Paraprionospio sp., a dominant benthic species in Osaka Bay. The results showed that Paraprionospio sp. had accumulated varying concentrations (wet weight; w.w.) of NP at 1,460-4,410ng/g; BP at 22.5-39.6ng/g; OP at 18.9-45.4ng/g; E2 at 0.89-4.35ng/g; and E1 at 0.06-2.50ng/g. Accumulation of NP and OP were highest among the samples gathered in summer (July 2008), while concentrations of BP, E2, and E1 did not much differs within 3years. EDC levels in Paraprionospio sp. were apparently greater than those in sediments showing bioaccumulation.

Occurrence and assessment of treatment efficiency of nonylphenol, octylphenol and bisphenol-A in drinking water in Taiwan

Occurrence and methods for the removal of nonylphenolic compounds in drinking water have been gaining increased attention due to their widespread presence in natural water and the potential health risks from the consumptions of drinking water. The purpose of this study was to assess the occurrence of nonylphenol (NP), octylphenol (OP), and bisphenol-A (BPA) in water sources and treated water in Taiwan, to evaluate the treatment efficiencies of these compounds in both the conventional (coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and chlorination) and advanced treatment processes. The treatment efficiencies of these chemicals were assessed based on their concentrations in water sources, and the results were verified with laboratory simulated treatment processes. A survey of NP, OP, and BPA in 11 Taiwanese water sources showed that all of them could be identified in most of the sampled sources, and that higher concentrations of NP were found when the raw water was contaminated by domestic wastewater. However, higher treatment efficiency could be observed when the NP concentration in water source is high. Laboratory simulation studies of conventional treatment processes showed that chlorination played an important role in the degradation of NP in raw water. Treatment efficiencies of 60%–90% were achieved for NP removal when sufficient chlorine dosages were applied to satisfy chlorine demands. However, results also showed that conventional coagulation and rapid filtration processes were less effective in the reduction of phenolic compounds in water.

The occurrence, causes, and consequences of estrogens in the aquatic environment

The occurrence, causes, and consequences of estrogens in the aquatic environment

Determination of alkylphenols and their short-chained ethoxylates in Polish river waters

A simple and robust analytical method for analysis of octyl- and nonylphenol as well as their short-chained ethoxylates in river water was proposed. Quantification of these analytes was performed by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection after isolation using solid phase extraction with polytetrafluoroethylene sorbent. The method allowed one to obtain about 80–100% recovery for octylphenol and its ethoxylates and 70–80% for nonylphenol and its ethoxylates. Also, there was no need for additional sample cleaning before chromatographic analysis. The limit of detection was 0.01 µg L−1 for octylphenol and its ethoxylates and 0.03 µg L−1 for nonylphenol and its ethoxylates. The proposed method was used for quantitation of octyl- and nonylphenol together with their short-chained ethoxylates. Nonylphenol, nonylphenol mono- and diethoxylates were detected at concentrations ranging from 0.12 to 0.53 µg L−1. Octylphenol, octylphenol mono- and diethoxylates were detected in four out of eleven samples at concentrations ranging from 0.03 to 0.17 µg L−1. High concentrations of nonylphenol and its ethoxylates were found in the samples, despite the fact that their use in European countries was forbidden several years ago.

Temperature and photoperiod affect the endocrine disruption effects of ethinylestradiol, nonylphenol and their binary mixture in zebrafish ( Danio rerio)

We found that temperature and photoperiod significantly influence the transcription of the estrogen-responsive genes, vitellogenin1 (Vtg1), vitellogenin2 (Vtg2), estrogen receptor-α (ERα) and estrogen receptor-β (ERβ), after a 21-day exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of 17α-ethynylestradiol (EE2), nonylphenol (NP) and EE2 plus NP (EE2 + NP). In general, gene transcription levels were higher as temperature and photoperiod length increased. The mRNA levels of Vtg1 in EE2 (10 ng/L) and EE2 + NP (10 ng/L and 25 μg/L, respectively) groups were induced more than 10 4 times both in 21 °C–12 L and 30 °C–14 L groups, but only 369 ± 23 and 178 ± 59-fold induced in 12 °C–10 L group compared to the control, respectively. Specifically, when exposed to a high concentration of NP (25 μg/L) for 21 days, the levels of all mRNAs examined were significantly increased ( p < 0.05) in the 21 °C–12 L and the 30 °C–14 L groups compared to the controls. However, no obvious induction in transcription was observed in the 12 °C–10 L group. The results obtained in the present study clearly elucidate that temperature and photoperiod greatly influence the effect of EDCs, and thus suggest that to fully define the endocrine disruption effects seasonal and/or climate change effects must also be investigated.

Ecological Risk, Mass Loading, and Occurrence of Nonylphenol (NP), NP Mono-, and Diethoxylate in Kaoping River and its Tributaries, Taiwan

Biochemically, nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPnEOs) and its breakdown products nonylphenol (NP), NP monoethoxylate (NP1EO), and NP diethoxylate (NP2EO) are considered endocrine disrupting compounds. These NPnEOs have been detected in aquatic environments and are of concern. NP, NP1EO, and NP2EO were detected in water samples collected from the main watercourse and polluted tributaries of Kaoping River, Taiwan. Concentrations were below the detection limit (<LOD) to 310 μg/l for NP, from <LOD to 27.2 μg/l for NP1EO, and from <LOD to 27.5 μg/l for NP2EO. It was found that concentrations of the three compounds in a low flow period were significantly greater than in the high flow period due to the low dilution effect. The risk to aquatic organisms by NP, NP1EO, and NP2EO was expressed as hazard quotient and hazard index and simulated with the Monte Carlo method. Results from this study suggested an inadequately treated domestic wastewater caused high concentrations of NP, NP1EO, and NP2EO and a high risk to aquatic organisms.

Chemical and Biological Characterization of Estrogenicity in Effluents from WWTPs in Ria de Aveiro (NW Portugal)

Effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are responsible for the input of estrogenic contaminants into aquatic ecosystems, leading to widespread effects in wildlife. In the present work, levels of estrone (E1), 17alpha- and 17beta-estradiol (E2), 17alpha-ethinylestradiol (EE2), bisphenol A (BPA), and nonylphenol (NP) were quantified in effluents from WWTPs located in Ria de Aveiro (NW Portugal), as well as in the final effluent discharged into the Atlantic Ocean through the S. Jacinto submarine outfall. Reference sites, located at the entrance of the estuarine system and at the seaside, were also included. Samples were collected under summer (June 2005) and winter (February 2006) conditions. For the summer survey samples, estrogenicity and androgenicity were evaluated using the yeast estrogen screen (YES) and the yeast androgen screen (YAS) assay. Estrone levels varied from 0.5 to 85 ng/L in the summer survey and between <LOD (limits of detection) and 43 ng/L in winter; estradiol levels ranged from <LOD to 9.2 ng/L in summer and were always <LOD in the winter survey; EE2 levels were always <LOD for both surveys. NP concentrations ranged from 75 ng/L up to 2,350 ng/L in summer and from 10 to 2,410 ng/L in winter; BPA levels varied from 2.8 to 897 ng/L in summer and from 2.6 up to 316 ng/L in winter. Biological assays disclosed estrogenic levels at reference sites lower than the ones reported to pose risk for wildlife. However, the S. Jacinto outfall effluent released high concentrations of NP and BPA into the marine environment.

Effect of nonylphenol on giant freshwater prawn ( Macrobrachium rosenbergii) via oral treatment: Toxicity and messenger RNA expression of hemocyte genes

A previous in vitro study has indicated that two alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEs) could potentially damage hemocytes and influence cellular immunity of prawns ( Macrobrachium rosenbergii). The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of nonylphenol (NP) on susceptibility to a pathogen and on the mRNA expression of hemocyte genes, including four immune-related genes. NP at different concentrations was fed continuously to prawn ( M. rosenbergii) for 1, 3, 6, and 9 days. Challenging prawns with Lactobacillus garvieae resulted in 44–50%, 20–24% and 10–12% mortality were detected after prawns were fed with 100, 10 and 1 μg of NP/prawn for 6 days, respectively. In comparison with control prawns fed with phosphate-buffered solution (PBS), the increase of mRNA levels of four immune-related genes, alpha-2 microglobulin ( α-2m), antimicrobial peptides ( amp), peroxinectin ( pon), and prophenoloxidase ( propo), was detected on days 1, 3 and 6 after feeding with 100 μg/prawn; on day 9, only the mRNA level of amp of the NP-treated group was significantly increased, while that of the remaining groups was not different from that of the control. In addition, two other hemocyte genes were also studied, including a respiration-related gene, cytochrome oxidase subunit ( cos), and an unknown gene, L12X3. The mRNA level of cos was elevated during the experimental period, but an increase of L12X3 expression was detected only on day 1 after treatment. Regarding sensitivity of these genes to NP, the results from NP-treated prawns on day 1 after treatment revealed (1) that mRNA expression of the six genes in the 100-μg-NP-treated group was significantly different from that of control group, (2) that the mRNA levels of three immune-related genes ( amp, pon and propo) in 10-μg-treated group were significantly higher than that of control group, and (3) that a significant change of propo was detected in 1-μg-treated group. These results suggest that NP may enhance the immune response of prawns, but the effect created by a high concentration of NP may damage prawns, and then increase the susceptibility to pathogen.

Fate of nonylphenol and 17β-estradiol contained in composted sewage sludge after land application

Many environmental problems caused by endocrine disrupters (EDs) have been reported. Because little is known about the fate of EDs accumulated in sewage sludge, we carried out a study to clarify the fate of EDs in composted sludge after its application to soil. Nonylphenol (NP) and 17beta-estradiol (E2) were measured for leachate and soil. High concentrations of NP and E2 were detected in the leachate at the early stage, but they decreased rapidly. Also, the high contents of NP and E2 in soil decreased significantly within 300 days. Because the decrease of NP and E2 in the soil was much larger than that of NP and E2 in the leachate, there must have been a physicochemical or biological decomposition mechanism in the soil layer. We also tried to clarify the transfer of NPs to plants from compost. In the experimental conditions of this study, the transfer of NPs to plants from compost was not observed.