High Concentrations Of Aflatoxins Research Articles

High concentrations of aflatoxin in Ugandan grains sparks public health concern.

High concentrations of aflatoxin in Ugandan grains sparks public health concern.

Determination of Aflatoxin Concentrations in Cereals and Legumes Marketed in Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State, Nigeria

Aflatoxins are group of secondary fungal metabolites produced by Aspergillus species, such as Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. The aflatoxin producing moulds can grow on cereals and legumes in the field, poorly dried harvested crops in storage, processed food, and feed products. The study was carried out with the aim to determine the level of aflatoxin contamination of cereals grain and legumes in Zaria metropolis, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Ninety
 (90) samples were collected, which comprises of 18 samples each of millet, sorghum, maize, beans, and groundnuts respectively. The samples were subjected to proximate analysis. The grains were further subjected to cultural isolation and microscopic identification. The isolates were then screened for aflatoxin production ability with neutral red desiccated coconut agar and viewed under UV light (365nm). The remaining portions of the samples was grounded and extracted with 80% (v/v) methanol. The enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) technique was used in quantifying the total aflatoxin content of the samples. The results revealed that all the cereals and legumes analysed contain organic and inorganic nutrients that can support the growth of aflatoxigenic moulds and production of aflatoxins. Some major parameters such as carbohydrate content, crude protein, crude lipid, and ash contents were statistically significant (p < 0.05). Thirty-one (31) isolates from the 90 samples were confirmed to be A. flavus and seventeen (17) were A. Parasiticus, with percentage occurrence of 34.4% and 18.9% respectively. All the isolates were screened and demonstrated ability for aflatoxin production under Ultra- Violent light (390nm). The results also revealed a high concentration of aflatoxin (11.04 µg/kg) in millet and a low concentration in sorghum (1.07 µg/kg). The contamination levels within the grains were found to be statistically significant (p < 0.05). Aflatoxin contaminations also occurred in 48 samples out of the 90 samples analysed. The grains samples analysed were found to be contaminated with varying amounts of aflatoxins, which is harmful to humans and animals. Therefore, steps should be taken to ensure that grains are properly dried prior to storage.

Molecular Analysis of S-morphology Aflatoxin Producers From the United States Reveals Previously Unknown Diversity and Two New Taxa.

Aflatoxins are highly toxic carcinogens that detrimentally influence profitability of agriculture and the health of humans and domestic animals. Several phylogenetically distinct fungi within Aspergillus section Flavi have S-morphology (average sclerotial size < 400 μm), and consistently produce high concentrations of aflatoxins in crops. S-morphology fungi have been implicated as important etiologic agents of aflatoxin contamination in the United States (US), but little is known about the diversity of these fungi. The current study characterized S-morphology fungi (n = 494) collected between 2002 and 2017, from soil and maize samples, in US regions where aflatoxin contamination is a perennial problem. Phylogenetic analyses based on sequences of the calmodulin (1.9 kb) and nitrate reductase (2.1 kb) genes resolved S-morphology isolates from the US into four distinct clades: (1) Aspergillus flavus S-morphotype (89.7%); (2) Aspergillus agricola sp. nov. (2.4%); (3) Aspergillus texensis (2.2%); and (4) Aspergillus toxicus sp. nov. (5.7%). All four S-morphology species produced high concentrations of aflatoxins in maize at 25, 30, and 35°C, but only the A. flavus S-morphotype produced unacceptable aflatoxin concentrations at 40°C. Genetic typing of A. flavus S isolates using 17 simple sequence repeat markers revealed high genetic diversity, with 202 haplotypes from 443 isolates. Knowledge of the occurrence of distinct species and haplotypes of S-morphology fungi that are highly aflatoxigenic under a range of environmental conditions may provide insights into the etiology, epidemiology, and management of aflatoxin contamination in North America.

Occurrences and frequency of fungi and detection of mycotoxins on poultry rations in Yemen

BackgroundFungi were grown elsewhere in the soil, water, and food, and fungi cause many of the problems during growth on food in stores. This study investigated the occurrence and frequency of fungi in four governorates in Yemen. Twenty-nine site samples of poultry rations were collected from four governorates in Yemen, in order to study the occurrence of fungi and production of mycotoxins.ResultsFungi associated and isolated from poultry ration were identified as Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus candidus, Aspergillus carneus, Fusarium moniliforme, Penicillium chrysogenum, Penicillium spp., Mucor sp., and Rhizopus nigricans. Frequency from Sana’a companies showed that F. moniliforme was significantly dominant (38.82%), followed by Aspergillus flavus (15.84%) and Aspergillus candidus (16.44%). While, from Taiz companies showed that Aspergillus flavus significantly was dominant (35.78%), followed by Fusarium moniliforme (29.26%). The results indicated that the samples collected from Taiz companies showed that high concentrations of aflatoxins ranged 26–45 ppb, than other samples which were collected from Sana’a while the fumonisins were 1–5.9 ppm. Moreover, lower concentrations of fumonisins were collected from Taiz companies (0.65–0.93 ppm). Aflatoxins in samples collected from farmer’s poultry in Taiz and Dhamar were 42.5 ppb. Also in samples from Sana’a and Ibb, the high concentration found is 39 ppb. The maximum significant mean of aflatoxins production was 25.2 ppb at 25 °C. Aflatoxins production was decreased at lower or higher tested temperature (3.6, 9.93 ppb) at 15 °C and 35 °C respectively. Similarly, fumonisin produced at 25 °C was 1.65 ppm, but decreased at lower or higher temperatures tested 1.3 and 0.54 ppm at (15 °C and 35 °C respectively.ConclusionThis study found that the poultry rations were highly contaminated by fungi. Moreover, some of the fresh samples contain high level of aflatoxins and fumonisin. On the other hand, this level may cause significant economic losses in the poultry industry in Yemen.

Aflatoxins in feed

Background. Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites, which are synthesized from a large number of intermediates from the primary metabolism of saprophytic molds. Aflatoxins, due to their genotoxic and carcinogenic effects, are the most important group of mycotoxins from the aspect of their impact on human and animal health. Of all known aflatoxins, AFB1 is the most frequent, with the most harmful impact on human and animal health. Scope and Approach. Due to their prevalence and toxicity, monitoring the presence of aflatoxins in the food chain is required. The scope of this paper is to provide information on the presence of aflatoxins in animal feed and in milk. This paper describes temperature increases in Europe that are contributing to the increased presence of aflatoxins in food, as well as aflatoxin prevention and protection measures. Key Findings and Conclusions. During the last decade, serious contamination of corn with aflatoxins was recorded in southern Europe. In the summer of 2012, Serbia recorded high concentrations of aflatoxins in corn and milk. Based on climate change data, it is expected that aflatoxin contamination in corn will become more frequent.

The protective role of the food additive butylated hydroxytoluene in the pancreas of aflatoxicosed adult albino rats

Introduction Aflatoxins are poisonous by-products from the fungus Aspergillus, with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) being the most toxic. Very high concentrations of aflatoxins are found in nutritive seeds like maize, nuts, cereal grains, and rice. They have been implicated in many gastrointestinal and hepatic diseases. Studies on their effects on the pancreas are limited. Phenolic antioxidants like butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) were reported to be chemoprotective against aflatoxicosis in some animal models. Aim This work aimed to demonstrate the histopathological effects of chronic AFB1 toxicity on the exocrine and endocrine pancreas and evaluate the possible protective role of BHT in these structural changes. Materials and methods Thirty adult male albino rats were randomly divided into three groups: group I served as the control group; group II received 60 µg/kg of AFB1 orally three times weekly for 5 consecutive weeks; and group III received a concomitant dose of BHT (0.05 mg/kg) orally along with AFB1. After the rats had been sacrificed, pancreatic specimens were taken and processed for histological, immunohistochemical, and morphometric study. Results Both exocrine and endocrine pancreas of group II showed marked degenerative changes. Acinar cells exhibited decreased or almost absent basal basophilia and reduced content of zymogen granules in periodic acid Schiff-stained sections. Periductal and perivascular fibrosis was observed with dilatation and congestion of blood vessels and inflammatory cell infiltration. β-Cells were degenerated and expressed decreased insulin immunostaining. There was significant decrease in islet surface area, islet diameter, islet volume, and numerical density of β-cells compared with the control group. The pancreas of group III showed marked improvement compared with the aflatoxicosed group. Conclusion Treatment with AFB1 for 5 weeks has a direct toxic effect on the exocrine and endocrine pancreas that can ultimately affect its performance. The use of BHT markedly attenuates these effects and can be considered an effective chemoprotective agent against AFB1 toxicity.

Free and DNA Adducted Aflatoxins in Chronic Liver Diseases that Predispose Patients to Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Mexico

Aflatoxins are mutagenic hepatocarcinogenic fungal metabolites that contribute to chronic hepatitis B and C and viral cirrhosis, which can both evolve into hepatocellular carcinoma. Objective: To identify and quantify free aflatoxins and AFB1-N7-guanine (AFB1-N7-Gua) adducts (active carcinogen) in the urine of Mexican patients with chronic liver diseases. Methods: Urine samples from 210 Mexican patients with chronic liver diseases, hepatitis B or C, or viral cirrhosis and four control groups: 1) patients with alcoholic cirrhosis, 2) patients with no hepatic diseases, 3) patients with kidney failure, and 4) healthy persons, were analyzed for free aflatoxins and AFB1-N7-Gua adducts by Inhibitory Indirect ELISA and high performance liquid chromatography, and both methods produced similar results (R2=0.90). A questionnaire regarding foods with high risk of containing aflatoxins was applied to relate diet and disease. Results: Aflatoxin-positive samples were found from patients in the following groups: hepatitis B (50%), viral cirrhosis (26%), hepatitis C (16.6%), alcoholic cirrhosis (10%), healthy (10%), kidney failure (0.47%), and chronic nonhepatic diseases (0%), with R2=0.95. Risk groups had more AFB1-N7-Gua adducts than controls. High performance liquid chromatography identified free AFB1 (exposure), types M1 and P1 (detoxification metabolites), and Inhibitory Indirect ELISA quantified AFB1-N7-Gua adduct (a DNA repair biomarker). High-risk foods related (P≤0.001) to hepatic diseases were maize, oil seeds, and dairy products. Conclusion: Mexican patients with chronic liver diseases exhibited high concentrations of aflatoxins and Aflatoxin-N7-Gua adducts, both of which showed high exposure and the last are significant biomarkers for the risk of liver diseases that predispose patients to liver cancer.

Incorporation of Groundnut Meal in Selected Products after Removal of Aflatoxin

KEYWORDS Aflatoxin. Groundnut Meal. Malnutrition. Novel Protein Source. Value Addition ABSTRACT Groundnut meal is the high protein by-product remaining after commercial extraction of peanut oil. Groundnut meal applications are limited because of typical high concentrations of aflatoxin. In the present study technology was developed to prepare protein rich powder from an oil extracted groundnut. To make the meal free from aflatoxin four treatments were employed viz. ether treatment, heat treatment, acid-alkali treatment and homestead acid-alkali treatment. After each treatment, the powder was subjected to analysis of protein and aflatoxin and acceptability for sensory characteristics. A reduction ranged from 17.86 to 100 percent of aflatoxin and 29.17 to 70.47 percent of protein. A comparative evaluation of four powders indicated that homestead acid alkali treatment is free from aflatoxin and containing 10.09gm of protein. This powder was incorporated in three products, that is, batti, besan laddu, and sweet biscuits at 35 and 50 percent level. Acceptability was assessed on 9 point hedonic rating scale. The mean overall acceptability of reference, 35 percent and 50 percent incorporated batti were 8.1, 7.2 and 6.3, besan laddu 8.0, 7.3 and 6.8 sweet biscuits 7.6, 7.4 and 6.5 respectively, revealing that the developed powder is acceptable at moderate level in various products. No significant difference (P>0.05) was found between reference and 35 percent incorporated product and between 35 and 50 percent incorporated products. However, the 50 percent incorporated product scored significantly lower than the reference, specifically for colour and appearance. The study concluded that aflatoxin can be removed from groundnut meal and further, can be used in different recipes as protein source.

Population structure and Aflatoxin production by Aspergillus Sect. Flavi from maize in Nigeria and Ghana

Aflatoxins are highly toxic carcinogens that contaminate crops worldwide. Previous studies conducted in Nigeria and Ghana found high concentrations of aflatoxins in pre- and post-harvest maize. However, little information is available on the population structure of Aspergillus Sect. Flavi in West Africa. We determined the incidence of Aspergillus Sect. Flavi and the level of aflatoxin contamination in 91 maize samples from farms and markets in Nigeria and Ghana. Aspergillus spp. were recovered from 61/91 maize samples and aflatoxins B1 and/or B2 occurred in 36/91 samples. Three samples from the farms also contained aflatoxin G1 and/or G2. Farm samples were more highly contaminated than were samples from the market, in terms of both the percentage of the samples contaminated and the level of mycotoxin contamination. One-hundred-and-thirty-five strains representative of the 1163 strains collected were identified by using a multilocus sequence analysis of portions of the genes encoding calmodulin, β-tubulin and actin, and evaluated for aflatoxin production. Of the 135 strains, there were 110 – Aspergillus flavus, 20 – Aspergillus tamarii, 2 – Aspergillus wentii, 2 – Aspergillus flavofurcatus, and 1 – Aspergillus parvisclerotigenus. Twenty-five of the A. flavus strains and the A. parvisclerotigenus strain were the only strains that produced aflatoxins. The higher contamination of the farm than the market samples suggests that the aflatoxin exposure of rural farmers is even higher than previously estimated based on reported contamination of market samples. The relative infrequency of the A. flavus SBG strains, producing small sclerotia and high levels of both aflatoxins (B and G), suggests that long-term chronic exposure to this mycotoxin are a much higher health risk in West Africa than is the acute toxicity due to very highly contaminated maize in east Africa.

Pattern of partitioning of aflatoxins from feed to urine and its effect on serum chemistry in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers

The objectives of the present study were (1) to monitor the pattern of excretion of aflatoxinM1 in urine after its conversion from aflatoxinB1 and (2) to observe the effects of different levels of aflatoxinB1 in feed on serum concentrations of key metabolites glucose, total protein, cholesterol and urea as indicators of metabolic status. Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers (n = 12) of similar age and weight were randomly distributed to four groups. Animals in Groups A, B and C were offered a contaminated cottonseed cake-based concentrate ration at 0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5% of bodyweight, respectively. Control animals in Group D were fed with aflatoxinB1-free green fodder. Based on the level of contamination of the concentrate ration with aflatoxinB1 (554 µg/kg), Groups A, B and C consumed 953, 2022, 3202 µg of aflatoxinB1 daily. Feed samples were analysed at Romer Laboratories Pty Ltd, Singapore by high performance liquid chromatography. AflatoxinM1 quantification in urine samples was conducted using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay with kits supplied by Helica Biosystems, Inc., USA. Serum samples were analysed for concentrations of glucose, total protein, cholesterol and urea using clinical chemistry kits provided by Human diagnostics (HUMAN, Biochemica und Diagnostica mbH, Germany). Carry-over rate of aflatoxinM1 in urine for Groups A, B and C was 15.51%, 15.44% and 14.04% of aflatoxinB1 while there was no detectable aflatoxinM1 in the urine of the control group (D). There was no significant difference in the concentrations of serum glucose, total protein and cholesterol between treatment groups. However, the concentration of serum urea was significantly higher (P &lt; 0.05) in the group offered the highest level of aflatoxinB1-contaminated concentrate. This result suggests that mycotoxicosis may compromise protein metabolism and accretion in affected animals. This leaves open the possibility that high concentrations of aflatoxins in milk may ultimately affect the health status of human milk consumers.

Aflatoxin, G1, G2 and M1 Prenatal Exposure and its Sero-Dynamics amongst Pregnant Mothers in Adamawa State, North East of Nigeria

Introduction: Of the known mycotoxins, the most important in relation to direct hazard to human health are the aflatoxins. Aim: to determine the level of exposure of aflatoxin from mother to child and its mode of transfer. Patients and Method: 570 pregnant women in the labour ward of The Federal Medical Centre Yola were investigated for their aflatoxin content by using the velasco fluorotoxin meter which comprised of 89 samples of amniotic fluid, 213 of serum from maternal blood and 211 serums from neonatal cord blood; 57 of those were controls. Results: The Aflatoxin values of G1, G2, and M2 above 20 ppb were obtained in 66 samples of the amniotic fluid (74.1%); 133 from venous maternal blood (62.4%) and 142 from neonatal cord blood (67.2%). blood. Conclusion: This results is suggestive that aflatoxin present in maternal blood crosses the transplacental barrier and accumulates in the foetus which further explains the high concentration of aflatoxin in the amniotic fluid and the in utero exposure to these toxins.

Influence of temperature and substrate conditions on the omt-1 gene expression of Aspergillus parasiticus in relation to its aflatoxin production

Most strains of Aspergillus parasiticus are able to produce high concentrations of aflatoxin (AF) B1 and G1 which are among the most potent mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic mycotoxins. Molecular studies in relation to activity of secondary metabolite gene clusters are crucial to improving food safety. In the present work, reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) was used to monitor the influence of temperature, substrates containing nitrogen and incubation time on the omt-1 gene expression in A. parasiticus. Phenotypic AFB1 and G1 production was also evaluated by high-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (HPLC–MS). The results demonstrated that temperature (25°C and 30°C) influenced relative expression of omt-1 gene throughout the time (maximum at 25°C) while substrate composition was not affected by it. However, when effect of temperature and substrate was analyzed at each incubation time, significant effects were found. Optimal conditions for biosynthesis of AFB1 and AFG1 were similar, and they were related to changes in temperature and sodium nitrate. The highest AFB1 and G1 production levels were found at 25°C. However, lower AFB1 and G1 values were obtained when A. parasiticus grew on the substrate containing sodium nitrate and there was no production of these AFs at 37°C in any of the conditions tested. In addition, omt-1 gene expression was correlated to AFB1 and G1 syntheses at the different conditions. Use of temperature conditions and sodium nitrate concentrations which limit production of AFs holds potential for preventing AF from entering the food chain.

Development of a pilot-scale process to sequester aflatoxin and release bioactive peptides from highly contaminated peanut meal

Peanut meal (PM) is the high protein by-product remaining after commercial extraction of peanut oil. PM applications are limited because of typical high concentrations of aflatoxin. For the first time, pilot-scale extraction of protein and sequestration of aflatoxin from PM were evaluated. Aqueous PM dispersions were mixed with two commercial bentonite clays and Alcalase in a jacketed mixer, hydrolysed for 1 h, heated to inactivate protease, and solids and liquids were separated using a decanter. Liquid hydrolysates derived from this process had >90% reduction in aflatoxin when clay was present. ACE-inhibitory activities of these hydrolysates suggest a potential benefit for blood pressure regulation. The insoluble fractions from the dispersions were dried and used in a separate turkey poult feeding study. These results indicate that scale-up of this novel process is feasible and offers a means for adding value to this underutilized protein source.

Occurrence of mycotoxins and associated mycoflora in peanut cake product (kulikuli) marketed in Benin

The detection of spoilage fungi and mycotoxins contamination in peanut cake product, popularly called ‘‘kulikuli’’ was investigated in this study. Forty five major markets were sampled and peanut cake products were analyzed for aflatoxins and ochratoxin A contaminations, and associated mycoflora. Total coliform count ranged between 1.6 × 101 and 14.0 × 102 CFU g-1, while the fungal count was between 1.0 to 8.1 × 102 CFU g-1. Bacteria isolated from peanut cake product were Eschericha coli, Klebsiella spp.and Clostridium spp. The fungal isolates include Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus, Aspergillus spp., Fusarium spp., and Penicillium spp. being the dominant microflora in decreasing frequency of occurrence. High concentrations of aflatoxins were detected. They were between 25.54 to 455.22 µg/kg for AFB1, 33.94 to 491.20 µg/kg for AFB2, 0.41 to 100.33 µg/kg for AFG1 and 22.04 to 87.73 µg/kg for AFG2. Ochratoxin A concentrations ranged between 0.3 and 2 µg/kg. The coexistence of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A (OTA) in peanut was also established. The results show that peanut cake product sold in market was highly contaminated and therefore unacceptable for human nutrition. Key words: Peanut cake, fungi, aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS).

An outbreak of canine aflatoxicosis in Gauteng Province, South Africa

Sporadic outbreaks of aflatoxicosis occur in dogs when they consume contaminated dog food. During 2011, low-cost brands of pelleted dog food were contaminated with very high concentrations of aflatoxins. Approximately 100 dogs were presented to the Onderstepoort Veterinary Academic Hospital. Clinically, the dogs were depressed to collapsed and icteric, with haematemesis, melaena and haematochezia. The most common pathological findings were icterus, gastro-enterorrhagia and hepatosis. On histopathological examination, fatty hepatosis and bile duct proliferation were observed. A consistent, very characteristic finding was the presence of a blue-grey granular material within the bile ducts. A total of 124 samples of the dog food fed to the affected dogs was analysed to determine aflatoxin concentrations. Concentrations ranged from below the limit of quantification (&lt; 5 μg/kg) to 4946 μg/kg and six samples were submitted to determine the ratio of aflatoxins in the feed. It is estimated that well over 220 dogs died in the Gauteng Province of South Africa as a result of this aflatoxin outbreak.

Efficacy of Montmorillonite Clay (NovaSil PLUS) for Protecting Full-Term Broilers from Aflatoxicosis

Contamination of poultry feeds by aflatoxin is a problem faced by poultry producers at one time or another. Of the several strategies used to reduce the economic effect of aflatoxin-contaminated feeds, the inclusion of selective enterosorbents may be the most practical and cost effective. This study evaluated the effectiveness of montmorillonite clay (MC) supplied as NovaSil PLUS on the performance of full-term commercial type broilers. Eight hundred male commercial broiler chickens (all vaccinated for Marek's disease, Newcastle disease, and bronchitis) were randomly assigned, (20 each) to 40 floor pens and fed 1 of the 4 dietary treatments of industry-type corn-soy broiler diets. Treatments consisted of a control feed, control feed plus 0.5% MC (CMC), a feed containing ˜4,000 ppb aflatoxin (AF), and a feed containing ˜4,000 ppb aflatoxin plus 0.5% MC (AMC). The starter diet was fed for 3 wk, the grower for 2 wk and, the finisher for 1 wk. Selected birds were randomly retained for specific tissue analyses of blood serum; relative liver, spleen, and kidney weights; and histological examination of sampled organs.The combined data showed that birds fed MC as NovaSil PLUS received significant protection against the effects of the aflatoxin for most parameters measured. This level of protection did not totally protect the birds from the effects of feeding extremely high concentrations of aflatoxin, however, as their performance was not as good as that of the control group. To our knowledge this is the first study addressing the protective effects of MC in full-term broilers fed steam-pelleted feeds more nearly approximating commercial production.

Efficacy of Zeolitic Ore Compounds on the Toxicity of Aflatoxin to Growing Broiler Chickens

Commercially available zeolitic ore compounds, when incorporated into the diets at 0.5%, were evaluated for their ability to reduce the deleterious effects of 3.5 mg aflatoxin/kg feed on growing broiler chickens from 1 day to 3 weeks of age. In a series of four experiments, the compounds used included the following: mordenite (particle size of -20 mesh; Zeomite); clinoptilolite (particle size of -20 mesh; Zeobrite); SC Zeolite (particle size of -20 mesh); and clinoptilolite (particle size of -35 mesh; Clino 1) or clinoptilolite (particle sizes of -20 plus +35 mesh; Clino 2). Results demonstrated that 0.5% Zeobrite, Clino 1, or Clino 2 added to aflatoxin-contaminated diets did not significantly (P < 0.05) diminish the toxicity of high concentrations of aflatoxin to growing broiler chicks. Zeomite mordenite ore reduced the toxicity of aflatoxin to growing chicks by 41%, as indicated by weight gains, liver weight, and serum biochemical measurements, which compares favorably with its in vitro binding capacity to aflatoxin. SC Zeolite reduced weight-gain toxicity of aflatoxin by approximately 29%.

Perak, Malaysia, mass poisoning. Tale of the Nine Emperor Gods and rat tail noodles.

In October 1988, a series of food poisoning cases occurred in the State of Perak in Malaysia. Most of the victims were children. Ultimately 13 children between the ages of 2.5 and 11 years died. Epidemiological investigations showed that the probable source of the poison was Loh See Fun, a noodles in the shape of a rat's tail. All the deceased ate the noodles from one supplier. Clinical and pathological findings were similar in each case. Postmortem examination was performed in 11 cases. Toxicological examination on organs in 10 cases showed a high concentration of aflatoxin in tissues of the deceased. High levels of boric acid were excreted from most of the victims. Histological examination of the liver in these cases showed necrotic changes found in aflatoxin poisoning. Combination of the epidemiological, clinical, toxicological, and pathological findings pointed to the fact that there was a common toxin or toxins responsible for the deaths. These were thought to be a combination of boric acid and aflatoxin.

Hepatocellular Carcinoma: One of the World's Most Common Malignancies

Estimates for world and regional frequencies of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) vary widely However, physicians and other medical personnel practising in developing 'Third World' countries are in no doubt that this constitutes a major scourge. Furthermore, they know full well that there are few more depressing tasks than caring for a patient with this particular malignancy, for it affects young people (mostly in the third and fourth decades of life and more frequently in men) and there is no satisfactory treatment. The disease is especially common in Africa, particularly in Mozambique and Senegal, and South East Asia (1). Most tumours arise in a cirrhotic liver (when the prognosis is especially poor) and the vast majority are associated with hepatitis B virus (HBV) infections. There are several portals of entry of the virus including tattooing, ritual circumcision, scarification (often carried out by local healers or medicine men) and less frequently blood transfusion and sexual intercourse. But the most common route is by infection from the mother who is a carrier of the HBV surface antigen (HBsAg), in the immediate post-natal period. Diagnosis is usually straightforward and a large hard nodular liver, frequently with an audible bruit, is virtually confirmatory. On clinical grounds however, differentiation from an amoebic liver abscess can sometimes be difficult (1). That hepatocellular carcinoma is a common sequel of the HBsAg carrier-state is beyond question (2). Other evidence that HBV infection is usually the cause has rapidly accumulated over the last decade and can be summarised (3, 4)' (I) there is a geographical correlation between hepatocellular carcinoma and the HBsAg carrier state; (li) patients with hepatocellular carcinoma are approximately 100 times more likely to be HBsAg positive than matched controls; (iii) HBV infections precede hepatic damage and not vice versa; (iv) over a five-year period an HBsAg positive individual carries a 1000 times risk of developing hepatocellular carcinoma compared with controls; (v) chronic HBV infection often progresses to macronodular cirrhosis and then hepatocellular carcinoma (2); (vi) HBV-DNA can be detected in the hepatocellular carcinoma cell genome; (vii) experimental evidence from hepadna virus (which resembles HBV) infection in woodchucks and pekin ducks has confirmed a progression to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. The role of non-A non-B virus infections (5) in the production of chronic liver disease is clear, but without serological markers their importance in hepatocellular carcinoma is unknown. It seems unlikely that the delta agent plays a significant part in the aetiology of hepatocellular carcinoma (6); The role of aflatoxin (a product of the fungus, Aspergilhts flavus) is still unclear (I); despite suggestive epidemiological work, mainly in Africa (a high concentration of aflatoxin B has recently been reported in millet beer in Nigeria (7)) supported by some experimental evidence, its importance is unknown. However, it has been suggested that impairment of hepatic microsomal activity (based on a background of

Occurrence of aflatoxins in some Egyptian food crops collected from two coastal regions

Two-hundred-and-forty-one samples representing cereals, legumes, oil seeds and nuts were collected from two coastal regions in Egypt. Mouldy samples were collected from lots stored under different conditions. Forty-eight per cent ((116 samples) of the samples gave bright greenish-yellow fluorescence, whereas 8% (19 samples) contained aflatoxins. Hazel nut, soybean and cottonseed meal samples were free from aflatoxins whilst white corn, yellow corn, peanuts and almonds had relatively higher concentrations of aflatoxins than other crops. Aflatoxin B 1 was present in all contaminated samples whilst G 2 was found only in peanuts. Aflatoxin G 1 was found only in yellow corn, paddy rice and peanut samples. High concentrations of aflatoxins were found in mouldy samples of cereals and legumes which are popular in Egyptian diets. The high concentrations of aflatoxins found in contaminated samples may be due to the method of sampling and to unfavourable storage conditions.