High-capacity Batteries Research Articles

Ethylene glycol-mediated dispersion enhancement of oxidized MWCNTs for improved electrochemical performance in flexible, free-standing OCNT/LMO electrode

The rapid advancement of flexible electronics and wearables necessitates high-capacity flexible batteries that adapt to various shapes and movements. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), with their exceptional electrical conductivity, mechanical flexibility, and structural stability, are promising candidates. However, achieving a well-dispersed and uniform distribution of CNTs and heavy active materials like lithium manganese oxide (LMO) particles in different matrices is challenging due to issues with agglomeration and quick sedimentation. This study uses ethylene glycol (EG) as a dispersing solvent to form strong hydrogen bonds with oxidized CNTs, enhancing dispersion stability and preventing re-aggregation. Its higher viscosity compared to water helps in better stabilizing and dispersing LMO particles within the oxidized CNT suspension by reducing sedimentation. The OCNT/LMO-EG electrode shows a higher discharge capacity of 128 mAh/g with Coulombic efficiency of 99.6% after 200 cycles, compared to the OCNT/LMO-W2 electrode, which uses water for dispersion and achieves 108 mAh/g with 99.6% efficiency. These results highlight ethylene glycol's potential to improve CNT and LMO dispersion, resulting in a homogeneous electrode structure with enhanced conductivity and higher capacity.

Enhancing Lithium-Ion Batteries with a 3D Conductive Network Silicon-Carbon Nanotube Composite Anode.

To meet the rising demand for energy storage, high-capacity Si anode-based lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with extended cycle life and fast-charging capabilities are essential. However, Si anodes face challenges such as significant volume expansion and low electrical conductivity. This study synthesizes a porous spherical Si/Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotube (MWCNT)@C anode material via spray drying, combining Si nanoparticles, MWCNT dispersion, sucrose, and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC). The MWCNT incorporation creates a robust 3D conductive network within the porous microspheres, enhancing Li+ diffusion and improving fast-charging/discharging performance. After 300 cycles at 1 A g-1, the material achieved a discharge capacity of 536.6 mA h g-1 with 80.5% capacity retention. Additionally, integrating a 3D network of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (SWCNTs) further enhanced capacity retention in a binder-free, self-supporting electrode created through vacuum filtration. The Si/MWCNT@C//LiFePO4 full cell exhibited an initial Coulombic efficiency (ICE) exceeding 80%, with a specific capacity of 72.4 mA h g-1 and 79.8% capacity retention after 400 cycles at 1 A g-1. This study offers a promising strategy for improving the performance and structural design of Si anodes.

Designing high-performance asymmetric and hybrid energy devices via merging supercapacitive/pseudopcapacitive and Li-ion battery type electrodes

We report a strategic development of asymmetric (supercapacitive–pseudocapacitive) and hybrid (supercapacitive/pseudocapacitive–battery) energy device architectures as generation–II electrochemical energy systems. We derived performance-potential estimation regarding the specific power, specific energy, and fast charge–discharge cyclic capability. Among the conceived group, pseudocapacitor–battery hybrid device is constructed with a high-rate intrinsic asymmetric pseudocapacitive (α − MnO2/rGO) and a high-capacity Li-ion intercalation battery type (po-nSi/rGO) electrodes. The experimental setup was developed to measure the current sharing between the two different active materials in a single device allowing us to distinguish the contribution of each active electrode material. The combined potentiostatic cyclic voltammograms and galvanostatic charge–discharge cycling profiles provided gravimetric capacity exceeding 600 F/g (or 180.5 mAh g−1 and ≥ 35mC/cm2) resulting in higher specific power and specific energy densities of 6.5 kW kg−1 and 33.5 Wh kg−1 with Coulombic efficiency (CE) and capacitance retention exceeding ≥ 85–90%, reported to date for full cell configuration, compared with symmetric or half-cell configurations (ca. 0.1 kW kg−1 and 13.7 Wh kg−1). Other systems studied provided specific energy ranged between 28 Wh kg−1 and 50 Wh kg−1 and specific power between 6.5 kW kg−1and 1.3 kW kg−1. Moreover, the behavior of such asymmetric hybrid devices represented a linear combination of the two active electrode material systems. The use of aqueous (and organic) electrolytes for asymmetric electrodes dramatically improved device performance and stability depending upon the electrode combination forming hybrid energy devices. We attribute the observed efficient performance of these hybrid devices induced by hybridized and emergent redox chemistries of merged electrode materials and dynamical processes at the electrode-electrolyte interfaces (intrinsic electroactivity, optimized double-layer and quantum capacitance) which play multiple roles. These energy devices are commercially relevant due to their potential viability in future hybrid electric vehicles, smart electric grids, electrocatalytic fuel production, space (micro-satellites), and miniaturized flexible electronic and wearable biomedical devices.

Multiple Redox-Active Centers in An Azatriangulenetrione-Based Covalent Organic Framework for High-Capacity, High-Rate and Ultra-Stable Sodium-Ion Batteries.

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) suffer from sluggish kinetics, large volume change, and limited specific capacity due to the large radius of Na+. These issues can be solved through using covalent organic frameworks (COFs) as electrodes. Herein, an azatriangulenetrione-containing COF (denoted as CityU-33) was designed and synthesized as an electrode material for SIBs. Due to its inherent abundance of multiple redox-active sites and fast intercalation kinetics, CityU-33 delivered a high discharge capacity of 410.4 mAh g-1 at 0.1 A g-1 and showed remarkable long-term cycling stability, where a discharge capacity of 313 mAh g-1 at 0.2 A g-1 with approximately 100% retention over 1700 cycles was achieved, making it the top COF electrode material for SIBs.

First-Principles Study of 3R-MoS2 for High-Capacity and Stable Aluminum Ion Batteries Cathode Material.

Currently, exploring high-capacity, stable cathode materials remains a major challenge for rechargeable Aluminum-ion batteries (AIBs). As an intercalator for rechargeable AIBs, Al3+ produces three times the capacity of AlCl4- when the same number of anions is inserted. However, the cathode material capable of producing Al3+ intercalation is not a graphite material with AlCl4- intercalation but a transition metal sulfide material with polar bonding. In this paper, the insertion mechanism of Al3+ in 3R-MoS2 is investigated using first-principles calculations. It is found that Al3+ tends to insert into different interlayer positions at the same time rather than occupying one layer before inserting into another, which is different from the insertion mechanism of AlCl4- in graphite. Ab initio, molecular dynamics calculations revealed that Al3+ was able to stabilize the insertion of 3R-MoS2. Diffusion barriers indicate that Al3+ preferentially migrates to nearby stabilization sites in diffusion pathway studies. According to the calculation, the theoretical maximum specific capacity of Al3+ intercalated 3R-MoS2 reached 502.30 mAg h-1, and the average voltage of the intercalation was in the range of 0.75-0.96 V. Therefore, 3R-MoS2 is a very promising cathode material for AIBs.

Regulating Bottom-Up Sodium Deposition with a Triple-Gradient Scaffold for High-Capacity and Long-Life Sodium Metal Batteries

Regulating Bottom-Up Sodium Deposition with a Triple-Gradient Scaffold for High-Capacity and Long-Life Sodium Metal Batteries

Realizing the Electrode Engineering Significance Through Porous Organic Framework Materials for High-Capacity Aqueous Zn-Alkaline Battery.

Energy storage technologies are eminently developed to address renewable energy utilization efficiently. Porous framework materials possess high surface area and pore volume, allowing for efficient ion transportation and storage. Their unique structure facilitates fast electron transfer, leading to improved battery kinetics. Porous organic framework materials like metal-organic (MOF) and covalent organic (COF) frameworks have immense potential in enhancing the charge/discharge performances of aqueous Zn-alkaline batteries. Organic frameworks and their derivatives can be modified feasibly to exhibit significant chemical stability, enabling them to tolerate the harsh battery environment. Zn-alkaline batteries can achieve enhanced energy density, longer lifespan, and improved rechargeability by incorporating MOFs and COFs, such as electrodes, separators, or electrolyte additives, into the battery architecture. The present review highlights the significant electrode design strategies based on porous framework materials for aqueous Zn-alkaline batteries, such as Zn-Ni, Zn-Mn, Zn-air, and Zn-N2/NO3 batteries. Besides, the discussion on the issues faced by the Zn anode and the essential anode design strategies to solve the issues are also included.

Elucidating the Chemical Pre-Lithiation Mechanism of Hard Carbon Anodes for Ultra-high Stability Lithium-Ion Batteries.

The hard carbon (HC) anode materials demonstrate high capacity and excellent rate performance in lithium-ion batteries. However, HC anodes suffer from excessive loss of Li+ ions during the formation of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) film, leading to poor cycling stability, which hinders their large-scale applications. Herein, a facile pre-lithiation strategy is proposed to achieve multi-functional precompensation of carbon nanofibers (CNFs) anodes. Both experimental and density functional theory (DFT) calculation results revealed that the strategy compensated for the loss of Li+ ions and reacted with four structures of CNFs during pre-lithiation, including tiny graphite domains, CO-containing functional groups, defects, and micropores. Furthermore, the lithium in pre-lithiated carbon nanofibers (pCNFs) existed in various forms, consisting of LiC24 and LiC18, Li─O─C, quasi-metallic lithium, and Li+ ions. Moreover, the uniformly distributed lithium on the surface of pCNFs induced the formation of denser and more robust LiF/Li2CO3-rich SEI film, which promoted Li+ ions transport. As a result, pCNFs showed more stable cycling performance (369.8mAhg-1, almost no decay for 1500 cycles). This work provides deeper insight into chemical pre-lithiation and offers a simple and mild strategy for highly stable batteries.

Iodine/Chlorine Multi-Electron Conversion Realizes High Energy Density Zinc-Iodine Batteries.

Aqueous zinc-iodine (Zn-I2) batteries are promising energy storage devices; however, the conventional single-electron reaction potential and energy density of iodine cathode are inadequate for practical applications. Activation of high-valence iodine cathode reactions has evoked a compelling direction to developing high-voltage zinc-iodine batteries. Herein, ethylene glycol (EG) is proposed as a co-solvent in a water-in-deep eutectic solvent (WiDES) electrolyte, enabling significant utilization of two-electron-transfer I+/I0/I- reactions and facilitating an additional reversibility of Cl0/Cl- redox reaction. Spectroscopic characterizations and calculations analyses reveal that EG integrates into the Zn2+ solvation structure as a hydrogen-bond donor, competitively binding O atoms in H2O, which triggers a transition from water-rich to water-poor clusters of Zn2+, effectively disrupting the H2O hydrogen-bond network. Consequently, the aqueous Zn-I2 cell achieves an exceptional capacity of 987 mAh gI2 -1 with an energy density of 1278Wh kgI2 -1, marking an enhancement of ≈300 mAh g-1 compared to electrolyte devoid of EG, and enhancing the Coulombic efficiency (CE) from 68.2% to 98.7%. Moreover, the pouch cell exhibits 3.72 mAh cm-2 capacity with an energy density of 4.52 mWh cm-2, exhibiting robust cycling stability. Overall, this work contributes to the further development of high-valence and high-capacity aqueous Zn-I2 batteries.

Inverse vulcanized sulfur-styrene polymers as effective plasticizers for polystyrene

Inverse vulcanized polymers have demonstrated significant potential as alternatives to conventional petrochemical polymers in various applications, including environmental remediation, where they are used to absorb heavy metals and pollutants from water and soil, and energy devices, such as in the development of high-capacity lithium-sulfur batteries. Despite their promise in these areas, the full application scope of these sulfur-based polymers remains unexplored. There is substantial potential for their use in other fields, such as advanced material coatings, medical devices, and as additives to improve the properties of existing polymers, yet these possibilities have not been thoroughly investigated. This study presents a sulfur-based polymer, synthesized via the inverse vulcanization of sulfur and styrene and partially crosslinked with divinylbenzene, as a novel plasticizer for polystyrene (PS). This polymer blend was prepared using an internal mixer to replace conventional organic-based plasticizers. The selected system was designed to maximize miscibility. Both virgin and plasticized PS were injection molded for comprehensive characterization. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) confirmed the complete consumption of sulfur, revealing a significant reduction in the glass transition temperature of PS upon the addition of the sulfur-based plasticizer. Morphological analysis showed a homogeneous surface with uniform single-phase morphology, indicating full miscibility of the blend. Tensile tests demonstrated enhanced ductility and reduced stiffness in plasticized PS, with strain at maximum tensile strength and elongation at break increasing by 22.0 % and 28.1 %, respectively. The plasticizer also improved the toughness of PS by 25.2 %. Rheological assessments corroborated the plasticization effect and confirmed the blend's full miscibility. Contact angle measurements indicated increased hydrophilicity of the plasticized PS samples. This newly developed sulfur-based plasticizer proved to be highly effective for PS, showcasing competitive efficiency comparable to commercial plasticizers. This advancement paves the way for new applications in the expanding field of sulfur-based polymers.

Achieving High Stability and Capacity in Micron-Sized Conversion-Type Iron Fluoride Li-Metal Batteries.

Iron fluoride, a conversion-type cathode material with high energy density and low-cost iron, holds promise for Li-ion batteries but faces challenges in synthesis, conductivity, and cycling stability. This study addresses these issues by synthesizing micron-sized iron-fluoride using a simple solid-state synthesis. Despite a large particle size, a high capacity of 571mAhg-1 is achieved, which is attributed to the unique surface and internal pores within the iron-fluoride particles, which provided a large surface area. This is the first study to demonstrate the feasibility of using large iron fluoride particles to enhance the energy density of the electrode and achieve an iron fluoride full cell with high capacity. Also, the cause of the capacity fading is investigated. Electrode delamination from the current collector, which is the main cause of capacity fading in early cycles, is resolved using a carbon-coated aluminum (C/Al) current collector. Moreover,iron (Fe) dissolution and the deposition of dissolved Fe on the Li metal also contributed significantly to the degradation. Localized high-concentration electrolytes (LHCEs)suppress iron dissolution and Li dendrite growth, resulting in long-cycle stability for 300 cycles. This study provides insights into the further development of conversion-type metal fluorides across various compositions.

Biomass-derived hard carbon material for high-capacity sodium-ion battery anode through structure regulation

Economical and environmentally friendly hard carbon materials are attractive options for high-performance sodium-ion battery anode materials. Biomass-derived hard carbon materials have good economic benefits and environmentally friendliness as anode materials for sodium-ion batteries. In this work, we propose a new hard carbon material prepared from agricultural waste olive shells through a simple and environmentally friendly process. The effects of high-temperature treatments and pre-carbonization strategies on the pore structure and graphitization degree of the hard carbon materials were investigated. Combined with electrochemical performance tests, the influence of structural changes on the sodium storage properties of the olive shell-derived hard carbon was revealed. Under the optimized conditions of carbonization temperature and pre-carbonization strategy, the OSHC-Air electrode exhibits excellent sodium storage capacity with 87 % capacity remaining after 1000 cycles at 1000 mA g−1. The assembled PB//OSHC-Air sodium-ion full cell exhibits a high capacity of 216 mAh g−1. Our research provides a potential candidate for commercial anode materials for high-capacity sodium-ion batteries.

Free-standing medium-entropy porous needle-like FeCoCuNi phosphide nanowires-formed flower clusters/carbon fiber anode with high capacity and long durability for sodium-ion batteries

The drastic volume expansion and slow sodium-ion kinetics hinder the practical application of phosphides with high specific capacity and low discharge voltage in sodium-ion batteries (SIBs). Herein, we introduced entropy configuration into nanostructures and prepared a novel free-standing, three-dimensional, porous needle-like medium-entropy Fe, Co, Cu, Ni phosphide (ME-FCCNP) nanowires-formed flower clusters/carbon fiber cloth (CFC) anode (ME-FCCNP@CFC) for SIBs. The distorted lattices caused by medium-entropy configuration provide abundant sites for sodium-ion reactions and improve the electron transfer rate. The medium-entropy effects improve the mechanical stability, while the three-dimensional networks and porous needle-like nanowires provide sufficient space for the volume expansion. These combined properties enable the ME-FCCNP@CFC electrode to exhibit a high-rate capability of 170.8 mAh g−1 at 5.0 A g−1 and deliver a specific capacity of 325.8 mAh g−1 after 2000 cycles at 2.0 A g−1, far surpassing most of reported transition-metal phosphides. Moreover, the Na3V2(PO4)3 || ME-FCCNP@CFC full cell showcases a high-energy density of 256.8 Wh kg−1 and a long cycling life (267.8 mAh g−1 at 2.0 A g−1 with a capacity retention of 83.2 % after 1000 cycles). These results provide significantly promising implications for the anode design of SIBs by employing self-supporting and medium-entropy structures.

Earth-abundant, low-cost raw micro-silicon enabled by mechanically strengthened binder for high-capacity and long-life battery electrode

Nano-structured silicon materials with high capacity, are currently being gradually commercialized and composited with graphite in high-energy batteries, although their fabrication cost is rather high. However, the low-cost micro-silicon materials are always criticized and discarded in batteries due to the severe particle-to-electrode crack and huge volume change. Herein, inspired by the human ligament, a cross-linked binder with greatly enhanced mechanical properties is designed and fabricated to stabilize micro-silicon anodes. This biomimetic polymer can not only act as flexible “fibrils” in ligament, to adapt the high-volume change of silicon anode; but also act as “proteoglycan” in ligament to firmly hold these flexible fibrils and proactively constrain stress concentration of silicon anode. The combination of “soft to hard” hierarchical structure would endow binders with excellent elasticity and toughness. The pure micro-Si (5∼10 μm) electrodes with PSB binder exhibit high initial coulombic efficiency (ICE) of 93.3 % and favorable reversible capacity of ∼1500 mAh g−1 at 4000 mA g−1 after 600 cycles. Furthermore, the PSB binder also enables the μSi/GR//NCM811 full cell with 91.4 % capacity retention over 200 cycles. This functional PSB binders provide inspiration for constructing μSi anodes with high-ICE, high reversible capacity, and long-cycling life.

Cooling Performance of a Nano Phase Change Material Emulsions-Based Liquid Cooling Battery Thermal Management System for High-Capacity Square Lithium-Ion Batteries

This study investigated the application of nanophase change material emulsions (NPCMEs) for thermal management in high-capacity ternary lithium-ion batteries. We formulated an NPCME of n-octadecane (n-OD) and n-eicosane (n-E) with a mass fraction of 10%, whose phase change temperatures are 25.5 °C and 32.5 °C, respectively, with specific heat capacities 2.1 and 2.4 times greater than water. Experiments were conducted to evaluate the thermal control performance and latent heat utilization efficiency of these NPCMEs. The NPCMEs with an n-OD mass fraction of 10% (NPCME-n-OD), particularly reduced the battery pack’s maximum temperature and temperature difference to 41.6 °C and 3.72 °C under a 2 C discharge rate, lower than the water-cooled group by 1.3 °C and 0.3 °C. This suggests that nano emulsions with phase change temperatures close to ambient temperatures exhibit superior cooling performance. Increased flow rates from 50 mL/min to 75 mL/min significantly lowered temperatures, resulting in temperature reductions of 2.73 °C for the NPCME-n-OD group and 3.37 °C for the NPCME-n-E group. However, the latent heat utilization efficiency of the nano emulsions decreased, leading to increased system energy consumption. Also, it was found that the inlet temperature of the NPCMEs was very important for good thermal management. The right inlet temperatures make it easier to use phase change latent heat, while excessively high temperatures may make thermal management less effective.

Capacity recovery by transient voltage pulse in silicon-anode batteries.

In the quest for high-capacity battery electrodes, addressing capacity loss attributed to isolated active materials remains a challenge. We developed an approach to substantially recover the isolated active materials in silicon electrodes and used a voltage pulse to reconnect the isolated lithium-silicon (LixSi) particles back to the conductive network. Using a 5-second pulse, we achieved >30% of capacity recovery in both Li-Si and Si-lithium iron phosphate (Si-LFP) batteries. The recovered capacity sustains and replicates through multiple pulses, providing a constant capacity advantage. We validated the recovery mechanism as the movement of the neutral isolated LixSi particles under a localized nonuniform electric field, a phenomenon known as dielectrophoresis.

Optimization of electrode thickness of lithium-ion batteries for maximizing energy density

AbstractThe demand for high capacity and high energy density lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has drastically increased nowadays. One way of meeting that rising demand is to design LIBs with thicker electrodes. Increasing electrode thickness can enhance the energy density of LIBs at the cell level by reducing the ratio of inactive materials in the cell. However, after a certain value of electrode thickness, the rate of energy density increase becomes slower. On the other hand, the impact of associated limitations becomes stronger, reducing the practical applicability of LIBs with thicker electrodes. Hence, an optimum value of thickness is of utmost importance for the practicability of thicker electrode design. In this paper, both the cathode thickness and the anode thickness of an NCM LIB cell were optimized by applying response surface methodology (RSM) with a Box-Behnken design (BBD) to maximize the energy density. Moreover, the influence of electrode porosity, together with the interaction of porosity with cathode and anode thickness, was incorporated into the optimization. A full factorial design of 3-level, 3-factor was used to generate 15 simulation conditions in accordance with the design of experiment (DoE) achieved through BBD. Then, those conditions were used to achieve 15 responses by simulating a reduced-order electrochemical model. Finally, the statistical technique analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze and validate the results of RSM. The results show that the RSM-BBD optimization method, coupled with ANOVA, has successfully optimized the thicknesses of both positive and negative electrodes for maximum energy density, despite the nonlinearity of the electrochemical system. The findings suggest an optimized cathode thickness of 401.56 µm and anode thickness of 186.36 µm for a maximum energy density of 292.22 of an NCM LIB cell, while electrode porosity is preferred to be 0.2.

Sulfur-doped enhanced ZnMn2O4 spinel for high-capacity zinc-ion batteries: Facilitating charge transfer

ZnMn2O4 spinel is considered a promising cathode material for zinc-ion batteries due to its superior Zn2+ storage capability. However, the widespread utilization of ZnMn2O4 spinel as a high-capacity cathode material is impeded by its insufficient electrical conductivity. To tackle this limitation, we have employed a sulfur doping approach by substituting sulfur for oxygen atoms within the ZnMn2O4 lattice structure. After theoretical calculation, the charge exchange between metal Zn/Mn and surrounding coordinated atoms is enhanced after sulfur doping. The sulfur-doped ZnMn2O4 spinel effectively enhances the electrical conductivity, improving its electrochemical discharge capacity. Furthermore, the results reveals that a doping level of 20 % provided the greatest enhancement in capacitance, achieving a specific capacity of 220.1 mAh/g. This work improves the disadvantages of ZnMn2O4 at the atomic level and can provide ideas for the optimization and modification of spinel cathode materials.

Remaining useful life prediction of high-capacity lithium-ion batteries based on incremental capacity analysis and Gaussian kernel function optimization

Remaining useful life (RUL) is a key indicator for assessing the health status of lithium (Li)-ion batteries, and realizing accurate and reliable RUL prediction is crucial for the proper operation of battery systems. As high-capacity Li batteries have more complex chemical properties, most of the current RUL prediction methods rely mainly on a priori knowledge to make judgments. As a result, prediction accuracy is not high. In this study, we developed a health indicator-capacity (HI-C) dual Gaussian process regression (GPR) model based on incremental capacity analysis (ICA) and optimized its kernel function to achieve accurate RUL prediction for 280 Ah high-capacity Li batteries. Validation against the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s four battery test datasets showed that the use of the HI-C dual GPR model resulted in a mean absolute percentage error and root mean square error of less than 0.02 and 0.04, respectively, for the four battery-rated capacity predictions. Additionally, this model achieved an absolute error of less than five battery failure turns. Compared with a single model, the HI-C dual GPR model not only had high accuracy but also solved the problem that the HI was not measurable in the actual battery operation, which made it more suitable for RUL prediction of Li batteries.

High-capacity and fast-charging Al battery based on Cu/KB cathode

Rechargeable aluminum-ion batteries (RABs) are promising for energy storage due to their high theoretical energy density, but face challenges in cathode materials that match aluminum's capacity and stability. We propose copper (Cu) as an inexpensive and easily synthesized cathode material for RABs, using KetjenBlack (KB) as a carbon framework to enhance cycling stability by reducing structural damage. Key findings include: (1) Specific capacities of 793.5 mAhg-1 (charge) and 414.5 mAhg-1 (discharge) at 2 Ag-1 current density; (2) Good rate performance with a capacity maintained around 200 mAhg-1 at 12 Ag-1; (3) After 300 cycles at 2 Ag-1, discharge capacity stabilized at 225.1 mAhg-1. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used to analyze electrode changes and understand the Cu/KB||Al battery's energy storage mechanism. This study introduces a novel electrode material and proposes a carbon framework for enhancing RAB performance.