High Andean Wetlands Research Articles

Community genetics of the key plant species Carex gayana in high Andean wetlands and conservation implications

High Andean wetlands are crucial for biodiversity conservation, climate change mitigation and adaptation, and the well-being of local communities in the Andes. Although community genetics provides an evolutionary viewpoint on ecological processes and allows for potential new understandings of the mechanisms that influence biodiversity and ecosystem function and their response to environmental changes, no research has yet explored the ecological effects of genetic variation in high Andean species. Here, we searched for single-nucleotide-polymorphism (SNP) loci of Carex gayana, an abundant plant species that fulfills crucial ecological functions in high Andean wetlands, that are associated with plant and aquatic macroinvertebrate diversity, and then investigated the spatial distribution of their alleles across a latitudinal gradient of ca. 600 km in Chile's Norte Chico. To identify SNP loci of C. gayana associated with community diversity, we analyzed a genomic dataset of SNP loci obtained through genotyping-by-sequencing of 158 individuals from 17 Andean wetlands using a genome scan approach. We found 30 structure and spatial outlier loci in C. gayana that were also linked with community parameters. We performed spatially-based causal modelling to infer the most probable origin of the observed relationships between SNP allele frequencies and community diversity parameters, resulting in 11 SNP candidates with possible extended effects on communities. The prevalence of alleles linked to greater taxonomic diversity varied greatly across wetlands. Some wetlands exhibited high frequencies of these alleles, while others had very low frequencies. These findings suggest that certain sites may be less resilient to global changes, while others could potentially serve as a source for restoration initiatives. Functional analysis of candidate genes using reference genomes of closely related Carex species allowed the identification of genes involved mainly in plant metabolism, responses to biotic and abiotic stress, defense mechanisms, growth and development, with functions commonly found in high-altitude plant species, and suggests that extended genetic effects of C. gayana genes to high Andean communities could be related to flower/reproductive development, defense mechanisms against herbivore insects and stress response.

Distribution And Abundance of Flamingos (Phoenicopteriformes: Phoenicopteridae) In the Salt-Affected Wetlands of The Peruvian Andes

This study investigates the distribution and abundance of flamingos (Phoenicopteriformes: Phoenicopteridae) in salted high-Andean wetlands of Peru. These wetlands are located at an altitude between 3 200 and 4 600 meters above sea level and represent key habitats for these birds. However, there is little information about the presence of flamingos in these environments and their relationship with salinity. To analyze the distribution and abundance of flamingo species in the salted wetlands of the Peruvian Andes. Sampling was carried out in 11 wetlands over a period of time from August to October 2021. Both adult and juvenile individuals were recorded, and data on physicochemical water parameters and environmental variables were collected. They reveal interesting patterns regarding the distribution and abundance of flamingos in these salted wetlands. It was observed that the Loriscota wetland harbors the largest population of flamingos, with a total of 14 750 individuals belonging to the species Phoenicopterus chilensis, Phoenicoparrus andinus, and Phoenicoparrus jamesi. Among these species, Phoenicopterus chilensis was the most abundant. Furthermore, a positive correlation was found between the presence of flamingos and certain environmental and physicochemical parameters. Water pH, maximum ambient temperature, and relative humidity showed a significant association with the presence of flamingos in the wetlands. This study provides important information about the distribution and abundance of flamingos in the salted high-Andean wetlands of Peru, which will contribute to the understanding of interactions between flamingos and their habitat. Additionally, they will serve as a basis for future conservation and management strategies for these species and the wetlands.

Accounting for unintended ecological effects of our electric future: Optimizing lithium mining and biodiversity preservation in the Chilean High-Andean wetlands

The intersection of mining activities and the preservation of fragile ecosystems presents a challenge, exemplified by the coexistence of lithium resources and the pristine High-Andean wetlands. In this study, we demonstrate the transformative potential of accounting for the intrinsic non-use values associated with these vital wetlands. By incorporating these values, we not only reshape optimal mining patterns but also forge a path towards enhanced environmental conservation. To quantify the value of affected biodiversity and ecosystems, we employ a meta-analytic benefit transfer function. Subsequently, we integrate these values into a competitive land use model that treats ecosystem services as valuable assets and incorporates the opportunity costs associated with mining activities. The results of our study reveal a compelling narrative: when the value of wetland ecosystems is considered, the pace of lithium extraction is markedly affected. The extent of this impact varies depending on factors such as wetland size, ecosystem service value, damage levels, and resource rents. By quantifying the ecological impacts of mining in economic terms, our findings present an avenue for policymakers to design a mineral extraction tax that complements a mitigation hierarchy to conserve these precious ecosystems.

Water Quality Determination Using Soil and Vegetation Communities in the Wetlands of the Andes of Ecuador

The bofedales are high Andean ecosystems of great socioeconomic and ecological importance. The Chimborazo Fauna Production Reserve has 15 bofedales in its jurisdiction, located in the provinces of Chimborazo, Bolívar, and Tungurahua. The objective of this study was to establish the relationship between plant species composition and the physicochemical characteristics of water and soil. To determine the floristic composition, destructive sampling of species was applied, and three sampling points of 1 m2 were established every 100 m per wetland. At each sampling point, physical-chemical variables were recorded in situ and in the laboratory for water and soil. The floristic analysis identified 78 riparian species of riparian plants (63 vascular, 12 bryophytes, 4 pteridophytes) and 1 lichen. In the aquatic environment, seven vascular plants, recognized as macrophytes, were recorded. The results show great heterogeneity in the soil, water, and vegetation characters because they respond to a mineralization gradient (as indicated by the high values of electrical conductivity and dissolved ions). Additionally, it was observed that the total amount of soluble solids that characterizes the Los Hieleros wetland (W11) is independent of hardness and chemical oxygen demand, which correlate with each other and, in turn, better describe the Pachancho wetland (W12). The highest degree of turbidity corresponds to the Cóndor Samana (W9) and Portal Andino (W10) wetlands. The Culebrillas (W6), Puente Ayora ANI (W14), and Pampas Salasacas (W1) wetlands are characterized by the presence of dissolved oxygen, so it is assumed that these are the wetlands with the best water quality. Consequently, it is imperative to double efforts to describe the ecology and status of these high Andean wetlands in order to promote their conservation.

Space-time quantification of aboveground net primary productivity service supply capacity in high Andean bofedales using remote sensors

The aboveground net primary productivity ( ANPP) of bofedales is one of the most important indicators for the provision of ecosystem services in the high Andean areas. In the case of bofedales, the evaluation of the ANPP supply capacity as a service on a spatial and temporal scale through remote sensing has been little addressed. The capacity, intra and interannual, to provide the ANPP of the high Andean wetlands was quantified at a spatial and temporal level through remote sensing. The normalized difference vegetation index ( NDVI) of the MODIS sensor was used according to the Monteith model (1972), product of the incident photosynthetically active radiation, fraction of the absorbed radiation, and the efficiency of using the radiation of the calibrated vegetation with dry matter sampling in the field. Results show an ANPP prediction R 2 of 0.52 (p < 0.05), with no significant spatial difference between field samples. When applying the model, the intra-annual temporary ANPP supply capacity presents a maximum average of 160.54 kg DM·ha –1·month –1 in the rainy season (December–May) and a maximum average of 81.17 kg DM·ha –1·month –1 in the dry season (June–October). In 2003–2020, the interannual temporary capacity presented values of 1100–1700 kg DM·ha –1·year –1. This makes it possible not to affect the sustainability of the wetlands and prevent their depletion and degradation. Understanding the ANPP supply capacity of bofedales can favour the efficient use of the resource and indirectly benefit its conservation.

Modeling the potential distribution of floristic assemblages of high Andean wetlands dominated by Juncaceae and Cyperaceae in the Argentine Puna

Aims: The aim of this work was to model the distribution of suitable environmental conditions of vegas with specific floristic characteristics. Vegas are high Andean wetlands that represent the main sequestered carbon stocks, biodiversity hotspots, and water regulating systems in the region. In these wetlands, plant communities are the main biological factor that determines functional processes, and plant species assemblages are associated with different ecogeographic features. Study area: Argentine Central Andean Puna ecoregion. Methods: For two different floristic assemblages of vegas, we develop ecological niche models of n-dimensional minimum volume ellipsoids through NicheToolBox, then obtain potential distribution maps. One floristic assemblage was dominated by the cushion-structured plant Oxychloe andina (Juncaceae) and the other by plants of the Cyperaceae family. Results: Elevation and precipitation were the main environmental factors determining the distribution of the two floristic assemblages. Juncaceae dominated vegas tend to be located in high, humid, and cold places, while Cyperaceae vegas are found at a lower elevation, with less humidity, and higher temperatures. According to the dominant climatic gradient in the region, potential distribution maps show that vegas of Juncaceae are commonly found towards the Northeast of the Puna while Cyperaceae vegas are more frequent at lower elevations to the South of the region. Conclusions: This study represents the first approach to niche modeling based on plant communities in vegas of the Argentine Puna, providing knowledge on the environmental factors that limit their distribution. This information could serve as a planning tool in a region exposed to growing perturbations such as mining and climate change. Taxonomic reference: Zuloaga et al. (2019). Abbreviations: AUC = Area Under the ROC Curve; NDVI = Normalized Difference Vegetation Index; ROC = Receiver Operating Characteristic.

Benthic macroinvertebrate communities and water quality assessment in high Andean Wetlands Callali-Oscollo, Arequipa-Cusco, Peru

High Andean wetlands are fragile systems, vulnerable to human activity and climate change. In the Arequipa region (Peru), there are high Andean lotic and lentic systems currently affected by livestock raising, fish farming, and dams. The aim of the study was to evaluate the aquatic invertebrate community in the Callalli-Oscollo wetlands and the possible impact of human activities. Samples were taken from November 2017 to October 2018 at 4 sampling stations in lotic environments and 2 in lentic environments. Macroinvertebrates were identified to the family level. The following were determined to evaluate community structure: richness, relative abundance, Shannon-Wiener diversity, Simpson dominance, Pielou evenness, and true diversity. The indices ABI, BMWP/Bol and nPeBMWP were applied to evaluate the ecological quality of the environments sampled. Thirty families were recorded in lotic environments, the most abundant being Chironomidae, Naididae, Limnesiidae, Elmidae, Baetidae and Lumbriculidae. The ecological quality was good, except at the station associated to the dam, where it was doubtful. Twenty-six families were recorded in lentic environments, the most abundant being Cyprididae, Naididae and Corixidae. The macroinvertebrate communities in high Andean environments reflect ecosystem conditions. Environments associated to human activity have lower ecological quality.

Spatial autocorrelation signatures of ecological determinants on plant community characteristics in high Andean wetlands

Understanding how biological communities are shaped is a central tenet of community ecology. Recent evidence highlights the potential of decoupling diversity spatial autocorrelation into its positive and negative components to reveal community assembly processes that would otherwise remain undetected, as well as to improve understanding of their impacts on different facets of diversity. Yet, such approaches have only been implemented to investigate the effects of a few assembly drivers on a small number of diversity components. Here, we used high Andean wetland plant communities over a strong latitudinal gradient to investigate the effects of various ecological factors on spatial autocorrelation patterns of nine community metrics with different informative values, including measures of richness, dominance, evenness and beta-diversity. By combining Moran’s Eigenvector Maps, partial least squares structural equation modeling, and regression analyses, we revealed two groups of community parameters presenting contrasting spatial patterns due to specific sensitivities to ecological factors. While environmental variation and wetland connectivity increased positive spatial autocorrelation in richness and dominance-related parameters, species co-occurrence promoted negative spatial autocorrelation in evenness-related parameters. These results offer new insights regarding both how ecological processes affect species assembly, as well as the information captured by classical taxonomic parameters.

Species–genetic diversity correlations through the lens of spatial autocorrelation: insights from high Andean wetlands

Species–genetic diversity correlations through the lens of spatial autocorrelation: insights from high Andean wetlands

Identification of High Andean Wetlands using SRTM & LANDSAT Images at the Head of the Chaschuil River Basin, Catamarca, Argentina

Identification of High Andean Wetlands using SRTM & LANDSAT Images at the Head of the Chaschuil River Basin, Catamarca, Argentina

Wetland monitoring technification for the Ecuadorian Andean region based on a multi-agent framework

Remote sensing using satellites and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) has become an important tool for wetland delimitation and saturation assessment since they enable patterns identification and wetland saturation data collection in an agile and optimum way. However, their deployment and operative costs limit their implementation in harsh environments, such as the ones presented in the high Andean wetlands. In this context, this work presents a framework to monitor cost-effectively high Andean wetlands using a multi-agent approach based on: field testing, UAV orthomosaics, and satellite imagery. The method developed comprises two stages: i) definition of the monitoring agent (field testing, satellite, UAV) and ii) image processing. For these stages, semi-empirical and statistical models, which were developed in previous works are incorporated in an open-source framework to tailor each monitoring approach accordingly to the seasonality of a representative Andean wetland. The application of the method and its results highlight the suitability of using visual spectrum low-cost remote sensing approach to compute wetlands saturation percentage. In addition, the methodology proposed allowed the development of a temporal monitoring scheme, where the viability of each monitoring agent is examined. In order to validate the method, field data and multispectral imagery were employed using as case of study the Pugllohuma wetland located in the Antisana Reserve. Thus, the main contribution of this work lies in establishing a technified monitoring framework for the Ecuadorian high Andean wetlands, which can be scaled up and extrapolated to other wetlands with similar harsh environmental conditions, helping to their management and protection policies decision-making.

Waterbird assemblages of inland wetlands in Chile: A meta-analysis

Chile has a large number of wetlands that offer a wide variety of refuges and food to waterbird assemblages. This research hypothesises that these assemblages differ according to the structural characteristics of each type of inland wetland. The object is to identify the structure of these assemblages, evaluating their richness, alpha α diversity and some ecological characteristics, taxonomic structures and trophic guilds. We performed a meta-analysis by submitting pre-selected articles to multivariate reliability analysis. The selected articles were used to characterise the assemblages by alpha α diversity: species richness, Shannon-Wiener index, Pielou’s Evenness Index, relative abundance and taxonomic distinctiveness Δ + and beta β diversity: Bray-Curtis with analysis of similarity percentage. Diversity and evenness differed in the seven wetlands studied, among 12 to 45 species, Shannon-Wiener index H’= 0.08 to 0.94 bits and Pielou’s Evenness Index J’= 0.06 to 0.71. Four wetlands were below and three above the expected value for taxonomic distinctiveness (Δ +) (73.2 units). Two clusters were identified using the β diversity: one consisting of the High-Andean wetlands (Huasco and Negro Francisco); and the other of El Peral lagoon, the Cruces River wetlands complex and the Tranque San Rafael man-made wetland. The most remarkable dissimilarity was provided by three species (Cygnus melancoryphus,Phoenicoparrus jamesiandPhoenicoparrus andinus). Zoophagous species that eat invertebrates by the first choice are the dominant group, while in lagoon wetlands phytophages and omnivores are more evenly represented.

Cálculo y valoración del almacenamiento de carbono del humedal altoandino de Chalhuanca, Arequipa (Perú).

High Andean wetlands are important ecosystems due to their ecosystem services. Carbon storage is a result of the low decomposition rate due to flooded soils and low temperatures. The carbon content stored in the high Andean wetland of Chalhuanca (Arequipa) was estimated and the value of this service was calculated. For this purpose, 30 samples were taken at random, establishing three carbon pools: aboveground biomass (leaves and stems), belowground biomass (roots) and organic soil. The samples were obtained with an auger-type device; each sample was dried at 65°C for at least 24 hours and the carbon content was determined using the Walkey-Black method and calculations and statistical tests were performed. The total carbon stored in relation to the area of the wetland was approximately 795,415.65 tons of CO2. The fraction of carbon per sample is higher in aerial biomass (49%), followed by organic soil (43.1%) and below ground biomass. On the other hand, the amount of carbon stored differs significantly between reservoirs, since organic soil stores the highest amount with 218.3 TC/he (90%), followed by below-ground biomass (roots) with 19.7 TC/he (8%), and above-ground biomass (leaves and stems) with 4.8 TC/he (2%). Finally, the ecosystem service of carbon storage cost 6462.18 U$D/he, for a total of 5703132.34 U$D.

Diversity of aquatic macroinvertebrates and water quality of the High Andean wetlands of Chalhuanca, Arequipa-Peru

Diversity of aquatic macroinvertebrates and water quality of the High Andean wetlands of Chalhuanca, Arequipa-Peru

The internet of things in high andean wetland monitoring, historical review approach

The internet of things (IoT) has allowed important technological advances for monitoring and telemetry, thanks to the fact that IoT-based systems allow to obtain information in large areas, far from urban environments, and where low energy monitoring systems are required, features that are consistent with the requirements for high Andean wetlands telemetry. The monitoring of environmental variables, such as water quality in high Andean wetlands, is a topic of great importance for the scientific community, since, if the knowledge of the dynamics of the wetlands is improved, it is possible to optimize the decision making for their conservation. In that sense, to know the application of the IoT in this type of wetlands at a global level, this work presents a review of the literature related to the use of the IoT in the monitoring of high Andean wetlands. In order to carry out a historical review, a methodology was proposed under some guiding questions, which allowed designing a structure for background searches. Both the questions and the structure guided the search process from macro areas, such as IoT and environment, to micro areas, such as IoT applications in wetland monitoring. Finally, the review concluded that IoT has not been applied in high Andean wetland monitoring.

Identification, Mapping and Ethnobotany of Plant Species in the Peruvian High Andean Wetlands: Stimulating Biodiversity Conservation Efforts towards Sustainability

The high Andean wetlands of Peru provide not only the well-known ecosystem services such as water storage, flood mitigation, erosion control, and purification of water, but are also a source of income for local economies (as fodder), have medicinal properties, are a source of food, contribute to the development of ecotourism among many other uses. Economic and population growth have already damaged many parts of the high Andean wetlands including their rich flora. In order to promote the conservation of its diversity and unique flora, this study conducted extensive botanical explorations to identify and map the floristic composition of the high Andean wetlands of La Libertad, Peru, as well as their influence on local communities. The authors conducted explorations taking taxonomic, biogeographic and ethno biological data of the flora species as well as their therapeutic and economic botany. The study identified 64 species of flora distributed in 46 genera and 27 families including Asteraceae (with 8 species), Juncaceae (with 7 species), Poaceae (with 6 species), Cyperaceae (with 5 species), Licopodiaceae and Rosaceae (with 4 species each), Apiaceae, Gentianaceae, Orobanchaceae and Sphagnaceae (with 3 species each) and Poligonaceae (with 2 species). With reference to economic botany, it was found that 32.8% of species constitute resources with a very good economic benefit. The study concludes that it is imperative to take actions to protect the high Andean wetlands as they are ecosystems with great biodiversity. This study contribution expects to raise concerns regarding the increasing impact of economic and population growth on the loss of not only natural habitats but species as well. Conservation efforts will help protect the heritage of the Andes wetlands for future generations.

Diversity of aquatic macroinvertebrates and water quality of the High Andean wetlands of Chalhuanca, Arequipa-Peru

Diversity of aquatic macroinvertebrates and water quality of the High Andean wetlands of Chalhuanca, Arequipa-Peru

Long-term spatiotemporal variability in high Andean wetlands in northern Chile

High Andean wetlands of the elevated plateaus of the Andes Mountains of Chile, Argentina, Perú and Bolivia are true oases that sustain life in this arid region. Despite their ecological value, they have been rarely studied and are vulnerable to climate change and human activities that require groundwater resources. One such activity that may be intensified in the near future is mining for nonmetallic minerals such as lithium, whose worldwide demand is expected to increase with the rise of electric vehicles that need batteries. To determine a baseline of the natural dynamics of these systems, which allows sustainable management, it is essential to understand the spatiotemporal dynamics of these wetlands. In this article, we studied the temporal and spatial dynamics of high Andean wetlands of Chile, with the aim of identifying the key processes that govern their dynamics. To do this, we used time series of Landsat data from 1984 to 2019 to study 10 high Andean wetlands. Furthermore, to characterize the climate variability in these systems, we studied the long-term relation between the changes in water and vegetation areas with rainfall and evaporation variability. It was found that the groundwater reservoir plays a key role in sustaining the high Andean wetlands. Wet years with a period of occurrence of 20–30 years are the years in which the groundwater reservoirs are actually recharged, and in between wet years, the groundwater reservoirs gradually release the water that sustains the aquatic ecosystems. Hence, groundwater exploitation should be carefully designed from a long-term perspective, as groundwater levels could take decades to recover.

IDENTIFICATION OF AFFECTED HIGH-ALTITUDE WETLANDS IN THE NORTH CHILE USING LARGE LANDSAT TIME SERIES

Abstract. High-Andean wetlands from northern Chile are considered worldwide biodiversity hot spots, however, they are subdued to high anthropic pressure. The monitoring of state variables, such as vegetation, allows to know the ecosystem’s global condition, which could be assessed by the analysis of spectral vegetation indices. The main goal of this paper was to detect changes in the high-Andean wetland vegetation, with remote sensing tools, to focalize surveillance efforts and the use of resources from environmental agencies. NDVI time series were constructed spanning from 1986 to 2019 based on Landsat data, which were analyzed based on the vegetation change detection using BFAST Monitor method. Detected changes were categorized to highlight certain types of changes that were considered more relevant. Wetlands were separated in two rankings (A and B) based on detected changes and territorial context. From 5,622 wetlands, 81 were categorized into group A and 510 into group B. One affected wetland was used as study case to assess the method’s efficiency, being able to detect changes and assign a relative importance to the case. It is shown that the proposed method has the capacity to detect vegetation degradation processes in high-Andean wetlands and could improve in the efficiency and effectiveness of the environmental agencies control labors over these ecosystems.

Genome-wide genetic diversity yields insights into genomic responses of candidate climate-selected loci in an Andean wetland plant

Assessing population evolutionary potential has become a central tenet of conservation biology. Since adaptive responses require allelic variation at functional genes, consensus has grown that genetic variation at genes under selection is a better surrogate for adaptive evolutionary potential than neutral genetic diversity. Although consistent with prevailing theory, this argument lacks empirical support and ignores recent theoretical advances questioning the very concept of neutral genetic diversity. In this study, we quantified genome-wide responses of single nucleotide polymorphism loci linked to climatic factors over a strong latitudinal gradient in natural populations of the high Andean wetland plant, Carex gayana, and then assessed whether genetic variation of candidate climate-selected loci better predicted their genome-wide responses than genetic variation of non-candidate loci. Contrary to this expectation, genomic responses of climate-linked loci only related significantly to environmental variables and genetic diversity of non-candidate loci. The effects of genome-wide genetic diversity detected in this study may be a result of either the combined influence of small effect variants or neutral and demographic factors altering the adaptive evolutionary potential of C. gayana populations. Regardless of the processes involved, our results redeem genome-wide genetic diversity as a potentially useful indicator of population adaptive evolutionary potential.