Higher Levels Of Aerobic Fitness Research Articles

Effect of Heat Acclimatization, Heat Acclimation, and Intermittent Heat Training on Maximal Oxygen Uptake.

Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) is an important determinant of endurance performance. Heat acclimation/acclimatization (HA/HAz) elicits improvements in endurance performance. Upon heat exposure reduction, intermittent heat training (IHT) may alleviate HA/HAz adaptation decay; however, corresponding VO2max responses are unknown. VO2max is maintained after HAz/HA; IHT mitigates decrements in aerobic power after HAz/HA. Interventional study. Level 3. A total of 27 male endurance runners (mean ± SD; age, 36 ± 12 years; body mass, 73.03 ± 8.97 kg; height, 178.81 ± 6.39 cm) completed VO2max testing at 5 timepoints; baseline, post-HAz, post-HA, and weeks 4 and 8 of IHT (IHT4, IHT8). After baseline testing, participants completed HAz, preceded by 5 days of HA involving exercise to induce hyperthermia for 60 minutes in the heat (ambient temperature, 39.13 ± 1.37°C; relative humidity, 51.08 ± 8.42%). Participants were assigned randomly to 1 of 3 IHT groups: once-weekly, twice-weekly, or no IHT. Differences in VO2max, velocity at VO2max (vVO2), and maximal heart rate (HRmax) at all 5 timepoints were analyzed using repeated-measure analyses of variance with Bonferroni corrections post hoc. No significant VO2max or vVO2 differences were observed between baseline, post-HAz, or post-HA (P = 0.36 and P = 0.09, respectively). No significant group or time effects were identified for VO2max or vVO2 at post-HA, IHT4, and IHT8 (P = 0.67 and P = 0.21, respectively). Significant HRmax differences were observed between baseline and post-HA tests (P < 0.01). No significant group or time HRmax differences shown for post-HA, IHT4, and IHT8 (P = 0.59). VO2max was not reduced among endurance runners after HA/HAz and IHT potentially due to participants' similar aerobic training status and high aerobic fitness levels. HAz/HA and IHT maintain aerobic power in endurance runners, with HAz/HA procuring reductions in HRmax.

Fatigue Affects Body Acceleration During Vertical Jumping and Agility Tasks in Elite Young Badminton Players.

Badminton is a sport demanding both high aerobic and anaerobic fitness levels, and fatigue can significantly impact game performance. However, relevant studies are limited, and none have employed a wearable inertial measurement unit (IMU) to investigate the effects of fatigue on athletic performance in the field. Overall performance and body acceleration in both time and frequency domains during the fundamental badminton skills of vertical jumping and changes of direction will be affected by fatigue. Cross-sectional study. Level 3. A total of 38 young badminton players competing at the Division I level participated. Body accelerations while performing vertical jump and agility-T tests before and immediately after undergoing a fatigue protocol were measured by an IMU, positioned at the L4 to L5 level. Jumping height decreased significantly by 4 cm (P < 0.01) after fatigue with greater downward acceleration (1.03 m/s2, P < 0.05) during the squatting subphase. Finishing time increased significantly by 50 ms only during the 10-m side-shuffling of the agility-T test (P = 0.02) after fatigue with greater peak and mean accelerations (3.83 m/s2, P = 0.04; 0.43 m/s2, P < 0.01), and higher median and mean frequency (0.38 Hz, P = 0.04, 0.11 Hz, P = 0.01). This study using a wearable IMU demonstrates the effects of fatigue on body acceleration in badminton players. The frequency-domain analysis further indicated that fatigue might lead to loss of voluntary control of active muscles and increased impacts on the passive elastic elements. The findings imply that fatigue can lead to diminished athletic performance and highlight the potential for an increased risk of sports injuries. Consequently, maintaining precision in monitoring fatigue is crucial for elite young badminton players.

A Discussion of Exercise Programs Performed During Firefighter Training Academies

ABSTRACT Firefighting is a physically demanding occupation that requires individuals to possess considerably high levels of muscular endurance, strength, power, and aerobic fitness. Under most circumstances, a firefighter's career begins with a training academy during which they learn essential job tasks (e.g., victim rescue) while performing a variety of exercise programs. Based on the current literature, several forms of resistance, aerobic, circuit, concurrent, and functional training positively affect the physical fitness and occupational performance of firefighter recruits. Because many fire departments have limited gym access, it is most practical for training academies to adopt exercise programs that can be completed with their academy's specific equipment and facility confines. Luckily, the research discussed within this paper demonstrates that effective training can be performed with minimal and maximal facility/equipment access. Regarding future studies, it would be interesting for researchers to compare the effects of minimal-equipment and maximal-equipment programs and apply training plans that combine these 2 extremes. Moreover, to accommodate the execution and learning of occupational tasks, researchers should explore periodizing training plans around the current physical demands of the academy while applying minimum effective training doses.

NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE HEALTH OF ATHLETES

As it is widely known, that the performance in youth sport involves an interplay between anaerobic and aerobic metabolism, which depends upon the intensity and duration of the activity and the individual’s developmental physiology, modulated by training status. High levels of aerobic and/or anaerobic fitness are essential components of performance in many youth sports. The aim of our research was to evaluate the use of nutritional supplements in different type of athletes depending on their knowledge and perception. Proper nutrition is essential for adolescent athletes to gain proper growth and perform adequately in sports, but we must not forget the damage that can be done to health and also various types of side effects, as a result, of excessive use of food and sports supplements.

Continuous Thermoregulatory Responses to a Mass-Participation 89-km Ultramarathon Road Race.

To continuously measure body core temperature (Tc) throughout a mass-participation ultramarathon in subelite recreational runners to quantify Tc magnitude and the influence of aerobic fitness and body fat. Twenty-three participants (19 men and 4 women; age 45 [9]y; body mass 72.0 [9.3]kg; body fat 26% [6%]; peak oxygen uptake 50 [6]mL·kg-1·min-1) had gastrointestinal temperature measured during an 89-km ultramarathon. Prerace-to-postrace changes in body mass, plasma sodium, and fluid and food recall quantified body water balance. In maximal environmental conditions of 26.3 °C and 53% humidity, 21 of the 23 participants finished in 10:28 (01:10)h:min while replacing 49% (27%) of sweat losses, maintaining plasma sodium (140 [3]mmol·L-1), and dehydrating by 4.1% (1.3%). Mean maximum Tc was 39.0 (0.5) (range 38.2-40.1 °C) with 90% of race duration ≤39.0 °C. Mean maximum ΔTc was 1.9 (0.9) (0.9-2.7 °C) with 95% of race duration ≤2.0 °C. Over 0 to 45km, associations between ΔTc and peak oxygen uptake (positive) and body fat (negative) were observed. Over 58 to 89km, associations between Tc and peak oxygen uptake (negative) and body fat (positive) were observed. Modest Tc responses were observed in recreational ultramarathon runners. Runners with higher levels of aerobic fitness and lower levels of body fat demonstrated the greatest changes in Tc during the first half of the race. Conversely, runners with lower levels of aerobic fitness and higher levels of body fat demonstrated the greatest absolute Tc in the final third of the race.

Decreased Exercise-Induced Changes in Prefrontal Cortex Hemodynamics Are Associated With Depressive Symptoms.

People with a depressed mood tend to perform poorly on executive function tasks, which require much of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), an area of the brain which has also been shown to be hypo-active in this population. Recent research has suggested that these aspects of cognition might be improved through physical activity and cognitive training. However, whether the acute effects of exercise on PFC activation during executive function tasks vary with depressive symptoms remains unclear. To investigate these effects, 106 participants were given a cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) and were administered a set of executive function tests directly before and after the CPET assessment. The composite effects of exercise on the PFC (all experimental blocks) showed bilateral activation changes in dorsolateral (BA46/9) and ventrolateral (BA44/45) PFC, with the greatest changes occurring in rostral PFC (BA10). The effects observed in right ventrolateral PFC varied depending on level of depressive symptoms (13% variance explained); the changes in activation were less for higher levels. There was also a positive relationship between CPET scores (VO2peak) and right rostral PFC, in that greater activation changes in right BA10 were predictive of higher levels of aerobic fitness (9% variance explained). Since acute exercise ipsilaterally affected this PFC subregion and the inferior frontal gyrus during executive function tasks, this suggests physical activity might benefit the executive functions these subregions support. And because physical fitness and depressive symptoms explained some degree of cerebral upregulation to these subregions, physical activity might more specifically facilitate the engagement of executive functions that are typically associated with hypoactivation in depressed populations. Future research might investigate this possibility in clinical populations, particularly the neural effects of physical activity used in combination with mental health interventions.

High fitness levels attenuate the increased risk of heart failure due to low socioeconomic status: A cohort study

High fitness levels attenuate the increased risk of heart failure due to low socioeconomic status: A cohort study

Could middle- and long-distance running performance of well-trained athletes be best predicted by the same aerobic parameters?

The prediction of running performance at different competitive distances is a challenge, since it can be influenced by several physiological, morphological and biomechanical factors. In experienced male runners heterogeneous for maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), endurance running performance can be well predicted by several key parameters of aerobic fitness such as VO2max and its respective velocity (vVO2max), running economy, blood lactate response to exercise, oxygen uptake kinetics and critical velocity. However, for a homogeneous group of well-trained endurance runners, the relationship between aerobic fitness parameters and endurance running performance seems to be influenced by the duration of the race (i.e., middle vs. long). Although middle-distance and ultramarathon runners present high aerobic fitness levels, there is no accumulating evidence showing that the aerobic key parameters influence both 800-m and ultramarathon performance in homogeneous group of well-trained runners. The vVO2max seems to be the best predictor of performance for 1500 m. For 3000 m, both vVO2max and blood lactate response to exercise are the main predictors of performance. Finally, for long distance events (5000 m, 10,000 m, marathon and ultramarathon), blood lactate response seems to be main predictor of performance. The different limiting/determinants factors and/or training-induced changes in aerobic parameters can help to explain this time- or distance-dependent pattern.

Anthropometrics, Cardiorespiratory Fitness, And Explosive Strength Of Men’s And Youth’s Mexican National Beach Handball Teams

Handball (HB), a team/ball sport, requires high levels of aerobic fitness and explosiveness. HB, like soccer and volleyball, can also be played on the beach. Beach handball (BHB) requires two teams of four players who play in a 27 x 12 m area for two sets of 10 minutes. BHB is a relatively new sport. In 2004, the first world beach handball championship took place. In Mexico, the number of youths who play it has been increasing. Although an abundance of anthropometric and fitness performance data is available for HB players, this is not the case for BHB players. Practitioners in BHB would benefit if this kind of data were at their disposal. PURPOSE: To explore differences in anthropometrics, cardiorespiratory fitness, and explosive strength between players of the men’s and youth’s Mexican national BHB teams. METHODS: Cross-sectional data were collected from 34 male players: 21 youth (Yu) (age: 14.71 ± 0.561ys; weight: 67.00 ± 11.01 kg) and 13 elite (El) players (age: 26.38 ± 6.00ys; weight: 87.25 ± 14.98 kg). Maximal aerobic speed (MAS) was calculated by performing a time trial over a set distance of 2 km, maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max) via a 12-min Cooper test, and explosive leg strength via counter movement jump (CJM). Statistical analyses included t-tests in SPSS. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. RESULTS: The groups presented differences in a) weight (Yu 67.00 ± 11.01 vs. El 87.25 ± 14.98; p = 0.00), b) BMI (Yu 21.15 ± 2.40 vs. El 26.25 ± 4.19; p = .001), and c) VO2 max (Yu 45.61 ± 5.95 vs. El 50.65 ± 7.16; p = 0.045), but not in a) height (Yu 1.77 ± 0.08 vs. El 1.82 ± 0.06; p = 0.064), b) CMJ (Yu 30.49 ± 5.61 vs. El 30.46 ± 4.99; p = 0.990), or c) MAS (Yu 14.43 ± 1.54 vs. El 14.07 ± 1.53; p = 0.506). CONCLUSION: The scores of the selected variables offer a preliminary investigation of the differences in anthropometrics, cardiorespiratory fitness, and explosive strength between players of the elite´s and youth’s Mexican national HBH teams. Body composition (fat vs. fat-free mass) is related to BMI, VO2 max, CMJ, and MAS. Therefore, future research should investigate a) why elite´s and youth’s test scores are not different in regard to MAS and CMJ, b) body composition, and c) how the latter translates into fitness test scores and performance metrics. Possible limitations may include cross-sectional design and small/unequal sample sizes.

Higher Baseline Aerobic Fitness Influences Jumping Performance During Military Operational Stress

Vertical jump (VJ) testing via force plate technology serves as a field-expedient indicator of fatigue and readiness in the military. PURPOSE: To determine if higher baseline aerobic fitness is protective against declining unloaded and loaded jump performance during simulated military operational stress (SMOS). METHODS: Eighteen military men (27 ± 6 y, 84.4 ± 12.7 kg, 177.8 ± 7.6 cm) completed a 5-day SMOS protocol characterized by frequent cognitive testing, marksmanship assessments, and a ~ 90 min Tactical Mobility Test (TMT) daily. The schedule was the same each day except that subjects had four instead of eight hours of sleep and 50% instead of 100% of their caloric needs on days 2-3. Participants performed VJ testing in unloaded (UL) and loaded (LD) (16-kg) conditions at three time points during the TMT: 1) pre, 2) following 2-min water can carry, fire and movement, casualty drag, and 300-m shuttle runs (UL and LD, 16-kg) (mid), and 3) after a 4-mile ruck march (post). Subjects were divided into groups using a median split based on baseline VO2peak (HIGH vs. LOW) assessments. Three-way ANOVAs for UL and LD conditions were used to examine the effect of group*time*day on jump height (JH). RESULTS: The three-way interactions were not statistically significant. A significant group*day interaction was observed for UL condition JH (p = .035). The main effect of day from the simple two-way ANOVA was not statistically significant at each level of group (HIGH: p = .111, np2 = .218; LOW p = .312, np2 = .132), but this effect was in opposite directions. Adjusted means on days 1 to 4 declined for LOW (M: 24.7 cm, SE: 2.0 to M: 22.9 cm, SE: 1.9) but increased for HIGH (M: 27.1 cm, SE: 1.2 to M: 28.9 cm, SE: 1.3). In the LD condition, no significant interactions were observed, but there was a significant main effect of time (p = .001). For the LD condition, pre-JH (M: 21.1 cm, SE: 1.0) was significantly higher than mid-JH (M: 19.1 cm, SE: 1.1, p = .001) and post-JH (M: 19.6 cm, SE: 1.0, p = .031). CONCLUSION: We demonstrate that higher levels of aerobic fitness was protective against declining JH performance in the UL, but not LD, condition across acute SMOS, suggesting that other factors (e.g., strength/power) may be important for maintaining jump performance in the LD condition. Funded by the Department of Defense (Award # W81XWH-17-2-0070).

Phasic activity of the locus-coeruleus is not a mediator of the relationship between fitness and inhibition in college-aged adults

Aerobic fitness is consistently and robustly associated with superior performance on assessments of cognitive control. One potential mechanism underlying this phenomenon is activation of the locus-coeruleus. Specifically, individuals with greater aerobic fitness may be better able to sustain engagement in a cognitively demanding task via a superior ability to meet the metabolic demands of this neural system. Accordingly, the present investigation examined 1) the relationship between aerobic fitness and phasic activation of the locus-coeruleus (indexed using pupillometry) and 2) the potential mediating influence of locus-coeruleus activity on the relationship between aerobic fitness and cognitive task performance. Participants performed an inhibition task while their pupillary responses were measured using an infrared eye tracker. A VO2max test was then performed to determine individuals' aerobic fitness levels. Consistent with previous research, higher levels of aerobic fitness were related to shorter reaction time. However, phasic activity of the locus-coeruleus did not mediate this relationship – nor did it relate to aerobic fitness level. These results suggest that aerobic fitness does not relate to differences in locus-coeruleus activity in the context of cognitive control in college-aged adults.

Influence of aerobic fitness on the correspondence between heart rate variability and ventilatory threshold

The aims of this study were to verify the correspondence between heart rate variability (HRV) and ventilatory thresholds during a progressive exercise test and the relationship with low and high aerobic fitness levels. Twenty male volunteers (29.5±6.2 years; 75.9±13.0 kg; 175.0±7.4 cm) were recruited. The subjects were allocated to two groups according to their VO2max &lt;48.8 ml•kg−1•min−1 (low cardiorespiratory fitness group) (n=10) and &gt;48.81 ml•kg−1•min−1 (high cardiorespiratory fitness group) (n=10). A progressive test was performed, consisting of 3-min stages beginning at 25 watts and increasing by 25 watts every 3-min. The HRV threshold (HRVT) and ventilatory threshold (VT) analyses were performed through visual inspection. The comparisons with RMSSD values in percentage of maximum workload resulted in a higher effect size (ES) than the SDNN values. The VO2 in the high cardiorespiratory fitness group at VT (+32%), HRVTRMSSD (+27%), and HRVTSDNN (+31%) was signifi cantly higher compared to the group with low cardiorespiratory fitness. Higher values were observed for relative load (W•kg-1) at VT and HRVTSDNN in the high cardiorespiratory fitness group in comparison with the low cardiorespiratory fitness group (P&lt;0.05), but no difference for VT and HRVTRMSSD. Signifi cant correlations between at VT and HRVTSDNN (r=0.77) were found only in the low cardiorespiratory fitness group. Cardiorespiratory fitness should be regarded as a factor for HRVT evaluation. The HRVTSDNN was closer to the VT in the low cardiorespiratory fitness group than the HRVTRMSSD, however, the use of vagal modulation assessed using the HRV parameter was more sensitive to observe possible differences regarding cardiorespiratory fitness.

Influence of aerobic fitness on the correspondence between heart rate variability and ventilatory threshold

The aims of this study were to verify the correspondence between heart rate variability (HRV) and ventilatory thresholds during a progressive exercise test and the relationship with low and high aerobic fitness levels. Twenty male volunteers (29.5±6.2 years; 75.9±13.0 kg; 175.0±7.4 cm) were recruited. The subjects were allocated to two groups according to their VO2max &lt;48.8 ml•kg−1•min−1 (low cardiorespiratory fitness group) (n=10) and &gt;48.81 ml•kg−1•min−1 (high cardiorespiratory fitness group) (n=10). A progressive test was performed, consisting of 3-min stages beginning at 25 watts and increasing by 25 watts every 3-min. The HRV threshold (HRVT) and ventilatory threshold (VT) analyses were performed through visual inspection. The comparisons with RMSSD values in percentage of maximum workload resulted in a higher effect size (ES) than the SDNN values. The VO2 in the high cardiorespiratory fitness group at VT (+32%), HRVTRMSSD (+27%), and HRVTSDNN (+31%) was signifi cantly higher compared to the group with low cardiorespiratory fitness. Higher values were observed for relative load (W•kg-1) at VT and HRVTSDNN in the high cardiorespiratory fitness group in comparison with the low cardiorespiratory fitness group (P&lt;0.05), but no difference for VT and HRVTRMSSD. Signifi cant correlations between at VT and HRVTSDNN (r=0.77) were found only in the low cardiorespiratory fitness group. Cardiorespiratory fitness should be regarded as a factor for HRVT evaluation. The HRVTSDNN was closer to the VT in the low cardiorespiratory fitness group than the HRVTRMSSD, however, the use of vagal modulation assessed using the HRV parameter was more sensitive to observe possible differences regarding cardiorespiratory fitness.

Low body mass and high-quality sleep maximize the ability of aerobic fitness to promote improved cognitive function in older African Americans

ABSTRACT Objectives: Because African Americans are at elevated risk for cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s disease, it is important to understand which health and lifestyle factors are most important for reducing this risk. Obesity and poor sleep quality are common in lower-income, urban African Americans and have been linked to cognitive decline in older age. Fortunately, increasing aerobic fitness via regular exercise can improve cognitive function. This study sought to (1) examine the cross-sectional relationship between aerobic fitness and cognitive function in older African Americans, and (2) determine whether body mass index and sleep quality moderated the relationship between aerobic fitness and cognition. Design: 402 older African Americans, ages 60–90 (84% female, mean education level = 14 years) completed neuropsychological testing, computerized behavioral tasks, physical performance measures, and health and lifestyle questionnaires. Hierarchical linear regressions were performed to determine associations between aerobic fitness and cognition and whether body mass index and sleep quality moderate the fitness-cognition relationship while controlling for age, sex, education, depressive symptoms, and literacy. Results: Higher aerobic fitness levels were significantly associated with better executive function. The relationships between fitness and hippocampal-dependent cognitive functions (learning and memory, generalization) were attenuated in those who are obese (body mass index 30 kg/m2) or rated their sleep quality as poor, ps < .05. Conclusion: Our results suggest that while exercise and associated improvements in aerobic fitness are key for improved cognition, these benefits are maximized in those who maintain low body weight and get sufficient, high quality sleep. Exercise programs for older African Americans will be most effective if they are integrated with education programs that emphasize healthy eating, weight control, and sleep hygiene and conceptualize individuals as part of their broader social and environmental context.

Cardiorespiratory fitness diminishes the effects of age on white matter hyperintensity volume.

White matter hyperintensities (WMHs) are among the most commonly observed marker of cerebrovascular disease. Age is a key risk factor for WMH development. Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) is associated with increased vessel compliance, but it remains unknown if high CRF affects WMH volume. This study explored the effects of CRF on WMH volume in community-dwelling older adults. We further tested the possibility of an interaction between CRF and age on WMH volume. Participants were 76 adults between the ages of 59 and 77 (mean age = 65.36 years, SD = 3.92) who underwent a maximal graded exercise test and structural brain imaging. Results indicated that age was a predictor of WMH volume (beta = .32, p = .015). However, an age-by-CRF interaction was observed such that higher CRF was associated with lower WMH volume in older participants (beta = -.25, p = .040). Our findings suggest that higher levels of aerobic fitness may protect cerebrovascular health in older adults.

How to Use Global Positioning Systems (GPS) Data to Monitor Training Load in the "Real World" of Elite Soccer.

How to Use Global Positioning Systems (GPS) Data to Monitor Training Load in the "Real World" of Elite Soccer.

Effect of C242T Polymorphism in the Gene Encoding the NAD(P)H Oxidase p22phox Subunit and Aerobic Fitness Levels on Redox State Biomarkers and DNA Damage Responses to Exhaustive Exercise: A Randomized Trial.

NAD(P)H oxidases (NOXs) constitute a principal source of cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and contribute to exercise-induced ROS production in the skeletal muscle. Here, we aimed to investigate the effect of single-bout exhaustive exercise on redox state biomarkers and oxidative DNA damage based on the C242T polymorphism in the gene encoding NOXs subunit p22phox (CYBA) and aerobic fitness levels. We enrolled 220 healthy adults in their 20s (men, n = 110; women, n = 110), who were divided into CC genotype and T allele groups through the analysis of the CYBA C242T polymorphism. Furthermore, maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) was evaluated to divide subjects into high fitness (HF; 70th percentile for aerobic fitness) and mid-range fitness (MF; 40–60th percentile for aerobic fitness) groups, with a total of 32 subjects assigned to four groups (eight subjects per group): CC genotype and HF group (CC + HF), CC genotype and MF group (CC + MF), T allele and HF group (T + HF), and T allele and MF group (T + MF). All subjects performed treadmill running exercise at 85% of VO2max until exhaustion. Plasma lactate, malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and lymphocyte DNA damage (tail DNA percentage [TD], tail length [TL], and the tail moment [TM]) were measured in the blood samples obtained immediately before (IBE), immediately after (IAE), and 30 min after exercise (30 MAE). Plasma lactate levels, SOD activities, and lymphocyte DNA damage markers (TD, TL, and TM) were significantly increased at IAE than that at IBE and significantly decreased at 30 MAE (p < 0.05). All groups displayed increased plasma MDA levels at IAE rather than at IBE, with CC + MF being significantly higher than T + HF (p < 0.05); only the CC + HF and T + HF groups exhibited a significant reduction at 30 MAE (p < 0.05). Moreover, TL at IAE was significantly higher in the CC + MF group than in the T + HF group (p < 0.05), and significantly higher in the CC + MF and CC + HF groups than in the T + HF group at 30 MAE (p < 0.05). TM was significantly higher in the T + MF than in the T + HF group at IAE (p < 0.05) and that of CC + MF was significantly higher than CC + HF and T + HF values at IAE and 30 MAE (p < 0.05). These results suggest that single-bout exhaustive exercise could induce peripheral fatigue and the accumulation of temporary redox imbalance and oxidative DNA damage. Moreover, high aerobic fitness levels combined with the T allele may protect against exercise-induced redox imbalance and DNA damage.

The relation between children's aerobic fitness and executive functions: A systematic review

AbstractA beneficial effect of physical activity on cognitive functioning is supposed, although to a certain extent, literature remains inconsistent. Furthermore, the mediating effect of aerobic fitness on this association remains unclear, especially in children. This review presents data from 26 articles on the relation between aerobic fitness and executive functions (i.e., inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) in prepubertal children (6–12 years). The qualitative synthesis was complicated by the use of diverse outcome measures to evaluate executive functions and the inconsistent inclusion of confounders. In general, cross‐sectional studies reported enhanced executive functioning in children with higher aerobic fitness levels. Only three intervention studies with inconclusive results were retrieved. Whereas a beneficial effect of aerobic fitness on executive functioning in children is often supposed, the available research does not allow to draw a causal conclusion. Good quality randomized‐controlled trials are necessary.Highlights This study reviewed the supposed mediating effect of aerobic fitness on the positive association between physical activity and executive functioning. Three intervention studies and 23 cross‐sectional studies confirmed a positive correlation between aerobic fitness and certain measures of executive functioning. A causal conclusion about the beneficial effect of aerobic fitness on executive functioning cannot be drawn from this review.

The relationship of aerobic and motor fitness with executive functions in preadolescents

Recent research findings have indicated that aerobic fitness and motor fitness are related to specific executive functions (EF). However, it is not clear whether the relationships of these fitness factors with executive functions are dependent on each other. The goal of this study was thus to investigate the relationship of aerobic fitness, motor fitness, and their interaction with EF in preadolescents. The sample consisted of 137 students (67 boys) aged 9–10 years. Physical fitness assessment included measures of aerobic fitness (20 m shuttle run test) and motor fitness (Hurdle and crawl test), while EF assessment encompassed measures of inhibition (Modified Stroop task), shifting (Smiley task) and updating (Letter memory task). The results showed that motor fitness was positively related to inhibition, r = .22, p < .05, while aerobic fitness was positively related to shifting r = .22, p < .05. Multiple regression and post hoc analyses indicated that aerobic fitness was positively related to shifting only when motor fitness was also high (β = .44, p < .01). This pattern of results could indicate the potential relevance of high levels of both motor and aerobic fitness for EF.

Higher striatal D2-receptor availability in aerobically fit older adults but non-selective intervention effects after aerobic versus resistance training

There is much evidence that dopamine is vital for cognitive functioning in aging. Here we tested the hypothesis that aerobic exercise and fitness influence dopaminergic neurotransmission in the striatum, and in turn performance on offline working-memory updating tasks. Dopaminergic neurotransmission was measured by positron emission tomography (PET) and the non-displacable binding potential (BPND) of [11C]raclopride, i.e. dopamine (DA) D2-receptor (D2R) availability. Fifty-four sedentary older adults underwent a six-months exercise intervention, performing either aerobic exercise or stretching, toning, and resistance active control training. At baseline, higher aerobic fitness levels (VO2peak) were associated with higher BPND in the striatum, providing evidence of a link between an objective measure of aerobic fitness and D2R in older adults. BPND decreased substantially over the intervention in both groups but the intervention effects were non-selective with respect to exercise group. The decrease was several times larger than any previously estimated annual decline in D2R, potentially due to increased endogenous DA. Working-memory was unrelated to D2R both at baseline and following the intervention. To conclude, we provide partial evidence for a link between physical exercise and DA. Utilizing a PET protocol able to disentangle both D2R and DA levels could shed further light on whether, and how, aerobic exercise impacts the dopaminergic system in older adults.