Hierarchical Division Of Labour Research Articles

Looking at the production chains from the uneven and combined development perspective: the Egyptian Qualified Industrial Zones Agreement

In the neoliberal era, the export-oriented industrialisation strategy has been promoted for its potential to transform the industry into an engine of growth for the rest of the economy. For this purpose, all developing economies are encouraged to join supply chains in order to upgrade their position in the hierarchical division of labour in the world economy. On the other hand, this has always been a thorny issue for the Southern economies. This paper investigates the Qualified Industrial Zones (QIZs) Agreement concluded between Egypt, Israel and the United States in 2004, critically analysing the outputs of the export-oriented industrialisation model. In its analysis, the study relies on dialogues between the production chain literature and the uneven and combined development perspective. In this context, it claims that the factors endogenous to global capitalism, like low wages and massive labour reserves, play an important role in determining Egypt’s role in the Agreement. Likewise, participating in production chains does have a further polarising effect on global inequalities. Accordingly, the Agreement charges Egypt in line with its position in the global economy, and the Egyptian textile industry articulates to the world market as a source of cheap labour.

“We Are Now the Same”: Chinese Wholesalers and the Politics of Trade Hierarchies in Tanzania

AbstractMany accounts of Chinese migration in Africa compare China to “the West.” However, lived historical experiences, social hierarchies and moral mappings of the division of labour have mediated how different peoples in different contexts have received, interacted with and given meaning to Chinese migrants. In Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, Tanzanians talk about so-called Chinese “wamachinga” (petty traders) who have complicated long-standing ideas about “African” and “non-African” roles in the economy, and who have both opened and closed opportunities for different African traders. Based on ethnographic fieldwork in the key Tanzanian wholesale market of Kariakoo, I examine how the entry of Chinese goods and traders has been associated with shifting local economic hierarchies. I argue that debates over the presence of Chinese traders are less about “China” than about the politics of which roles belong to whom in a hierarchical division of labour.

A Probe into Integration of Mindfulness into the Three-level Counseling Model

<p>本文探討如何將正念的實證效益結合學校的三級輔導模式以提供青少年心理方面的協助。正念發展至今已有二三十年，應用在醫學、教育、生活等各層面已相當廣泛，亦無年齡層的差別，服務的對象從嚴重的精神疾患到輕微的心理障礙都有顯著的效果，甚至也提供一般人心理保健之道，也因服務對象需求之不同而發展出各種不同的療癒方案或教育課程。筆者認為正念的發展正好與學校三級輔導模式的分層分工相互呼應，不僅同樣關注心理層面的健康，也強調滿足各級學生的不同需求。青少年正值身心劇烈變化的時期，對自我產生很多的好奇與疑惑、擔心與不安，開始面對各種人際困擾，需要環境給予較多的關懷與協助，正念恰可提供青少年相當多的助益；也由於青少年正值國民教育階段，藉由學校正念環境的建構將可協助所有的青少年。儘管目前正念已逐漸在學校發展起來，但是尚沒有清楚的架構依循可以視人適需提供合宜的正念處置方式，因此筆者擬以三級輔導為架構探討如何將正念有效地應用在青少年對象上，冀望能夠協助他們度過風暴的青春期。</p> <p> </p><p>This article explored how to combine the empirical benefits of mindfulness with the school’s three-level counseling model to provide psychological assistance for adolescents. Mindfulness has been developed for 20 to 30 years, and it has been widely used in medicine, education, and life. There is no difference in age groups. Moreover, mindfulness can be beneficial to people of all ages. Mindfulness has a significant effect on its target groups, ranging from severe mental illness to mild psychological disorders, and it’s even provided with the public general with mental health care. Various treatments have been developed due to the different needs of target groups, including healing programs and educational courses. The author believes that the development of mindfulness synergistically interacts with the hierarchical division of labor in the school’s three-level guidance model. It not only pays attention to psychological health but also emphasizes meeting the different needs of students at all levels. Teenagers are in a period of drastic physical and mental changes. They have a lot of curiosity, doubts, worry and anxiety about themselves, and they also begin to face various interpersonal problems. They need more care and assistance from the environment. Mindfulness can provide a lot of help for adolescents. What’s more, since adolescents are at the stage of national education, all adolescents can be assisted by the construction of a mindfulness environment in schools. Although mindfulness has gradually developed in schools, there is still no clear framework to follow to provide appropriate mindfulness treatment methods according to people’s needs. Therefore, the author intends to use a three-level counseling framework to explore how to effectively apply mindfulness to young people and help them weather the ups and downs of their adolescent period.</p> <p> </p>

A Typology of Institutional Logics for Public Accountability Organizations in Zambia

ABSTRACT This article presents a new typology of institutional logics that is useful for studying public accountability organizations in Zambia. The typology was developed by following the adaptive theory approach introduced by Derek Layder and is based on extant literature as well as on new empirical data from three public accountability organizations in Zambia, the Office of Auditor General, the Anti-Corruption Commission, and the national ombudsman office. The model consists of four types of logics: a kinship logic, which is informal and based on gift-giving and mutual obligation; a bureaucratic logic, which is based on hierarchical division of labour in a stable environment; a development management logic, based on private sector approaches to development; and a professionalism logic based on membership in a professional field. The new typology broadens the scope of the institutional logics perspective to include the Global South as well as to include informal aspects of public accountability organizations and the political power struggles that tend to surround them.

The origins of Swiss wealth management? Genevan private banking, 1800–1840

Geneva is host to the most ancient and venerable private banks of Switzerland, but not much is known about the circumstances in which the city allegedly developed an early competitive advantage in wealth management. Using an extraordinary qualitative source (Jacques Mirabaud's papers, and especially his memoirs), this article outlines the microstructure of Genevan private banking at the time of its emergence in the early nineteenth century. It finds that in those years, wealth managers’ ‘raw material’ did not consist of foreign capital, but of a remarkably abundant stock of domestic capital. Financial and social factors were intertwined in producing a very hierarchical division of labour in the origination and distribution of international sovereign loans.

Limits of Localism

A trend in the planning discourse tends to portray the local in a positive light. This paper critically examines localism and regionalism, from a theoretical point of view, to find out whether this positive outlook may be maintained. First the ontology of the local is examined, with its substantive, relational and experiential aspects. As a complex, multi-dimensional process, localism is then analysed at the intersection of four dimensions of power: territorial, representational, institutional, and functional. Boundaries are drawn, representations created, relations within and beyond the locality arranged, and functions allocated. The analysis shows a tendency to essentialise the local as a finished, circumscribed, commodified product, at odds with its multiplicity, diversity, inequality, porous boundaries and relational reality. There is also a gap between the definitions and functions allocated to the local in a hierarchical division of labour, relations with intra- and extra-local political and economic forces, and the mythological narratives of autonomy.

Geographical distribution of product development capabilities in the automobile industry: towards a hierarchical division of labour in Mercosur

In the last decade, some carmakers with operations in Mercosur delegated a growing number of product development responsibilities to their subsidiaries operating in Argentina and Brazil. As a result, these subsidiaries were able to accumulate capabilities that allowed them to introduce innovations of increasing complexity into the vehicles manufactured in the region. Empirical evidence suggests that, beyond the differences observed in the strategies adopted by carmakers in Mercosur, the most intense capability accumulation experiences were largely concentrated in subsidiaries located in the Brazilian territory. As a result, a hierarchical division of labour has progressively taken shape within Mercosur favouring the subsidiaries located in this country, at the expense of their Argentinian counterparts. Through the examination of three companies, this article aims to analyse the process of accumulation of product development capabilities in subsidiaries operating in Argentina and Brazil between 1991 and 2011.

<i>The Fun Factory: The Keystone Film Company and the Emergence of Mass Culture</i>, and: <i>Universal Women: Filmmaking and Institutional Change in Early Hollywood</i> (review)

Reviewed by: The Fun Factory: The Keystone Film Company and the Emergence of Mass Culture, and: Universal Women: Filmmaking and Institutional Change in Early Hollywood Paul Monticone (bio) Rob King . The Fun Factory: The Keystone Film Company and the Emergence of Mass Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009. 376 pp. $26.95 (paper), $60.00 (cloth). Mark Garrett Cooper . Universal Women: Filmmaking and Institutional Change in Early Hollywood. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010. 264 pp. $27.00 (paper). Two recent studio histories provide valuable contributions to our understanding of the emergence of studio-era Hollywood and revivify a genre of film history still—long after the so-called historical turn—too thick with annotated filmographies, biographical chronicles, and narrow industrial histories. The significance of the 1910s to the shape that popular cinema would take has long been known, and among the decade's most significant innovations were the emergence of the feature-length film, the studio system's hierarchical division of labor, the star system, the acceptance of cinema as a legitimate cultural form, and the victory of southern California over other production centers. At first glance, the subjects of Rob King's The Fun Factory: The Keystone Film Company and the Emergence of Mass Culture (University of California Press, 2009) and of Mark Garrett Cooper's Universal Women: Filmmaking and Institutional Change in Early Hollywood (University of Illinois Press, 2010) would appear to reside outside the industry's mainstream. But in accounting for practices seemingly out of step with much of the industry, both books advance our understanding of how that mainstream formed. By the midteens, mainstream cinema had largely abandoned the working-class and immigrant audiences of the nickelodeon era and had excluded women of the nickelodeon era and had excluded women from positions of authority. However, as these two books establish, at Keystone and Universal such configurations did exist—at least for a time. Both books share a similar structure: six chapters in two sections, the first accounting for the presence of unrefined, working-class cultural forms and female directors, and the second charting how these studios came into alignment with the rest of the industry. In neither case is this latter process construed as a simple surrender to an exogenous dominant, and this is the principal virtue shared by both volumes. For King, the transformation of [End Page 61] Keystone's brand of slapstick from a popular entertainment to mass culture required complex hybridizations of cultural forms, and, for Cooper, the fortunes of female filmmakers were determined by complex institutional practices, such as the geography of the workplace, management hierarchies, and the function genre would perform in feature production. The tight focus shared by the two works—each treats one studio and covers about half a decade—permits the authors to demonstrate how two particular features of mainstream cinema were instituted at two particular studios. King's The Fun Factory argues that Keystone should not be recalled nostalgically for its pratfalls and bathing beauties but, rather, should be understood as instrumental to the early twentieth century's most significant cultural shift, from a "hierarchical cultural order that reinforced social divisions to a commercially driven 'mass' culture that tended to obscure those divisions" (8). Keystone, at first, exploited those divisions, as King demonstrates in his first chapters. Shortly after its founding in 1912, Mack Sennett's Keystone found a niche as a working-class reply to the uplift movement's genteel pretensions (like those of Sennett's former employer, Biograph). Moral melodramas were countered with slapstick spectacles that often dismissed narrative development and frequently burlesqued the conventions of Griffith's last-minute rescues. The second chapter traces how, at Keystone, humor initially centered on ethnic stereotypes of Germans, Irish, and Jews (all staples of nineteenth-century popular entertainments), but these images were supplanted by classed figures, such as Chaplin's paradigmatic tramp, as immigrant and native-born workers began to forge a common, working-class identity. Pushing ethnic humor to the margins also helped expand Keystone's audience into the middle class. Paradoxically, at the moment when Keystone most clearly foregrounded class as comedic content, it also began to modify the working class's popular...

Michelin-starred theatres

The recent universal adoption of pre-procedure surgical checklists illustrates how modern surgical practice has benefited from lessons in safety culture, courtesy of high-risk industries like commercial aviation1,2 and petroleum exploration.3 Such ideas are implemented to reduce risk and avert catastrophe, but perhaps surgery can also share tips with less hazardous professions. As celebrity chefs roll up their sleeves for more broadcasting of the perfect roast goose recipe, perhaps we can consider their more restaurant-tied comrades, and their skills and attributes. Cooking seems to have parallels with surgery. Modern surgical care and the finest commercial gastronomy have the shared aspiration of providing dependable excellence. Haute cuisine chefs and leading surgeons must deliver a personalized service which is self-critical and constantly improving in a high-pressure environment. A limp souffle may be less catastrophic to the recipient than a poorly-fashioned anastomosis, but errors must still be universally avoided. Knives apart, the working day in a Michelin-starred kitchen functions with the surgical precision of the most well-oiled theatre. There is a hierarchical division of labour from the kitchen assistant to the head chef. Even with exemplary assistance from the multidisciplinary team, ultimate responsibility for gastronomical governance rests with the chef. He or she must be an inspiring leader, effective communicator and proactive manager. The chef innovates with the menu and ingredients, audits the quality of dishes, deals with suppliers, monitors recruitment and staffing, still leaving time for communicating effectively with the occasional dissatisfied customer. He or she also ensures resources used are cost-effective without compromising quality, and oversees the safety and professional development of the team. Optimum success in surgery does not just require technical competence, but a Raymond Blanc style passion and work ethic to achieve the absolute best. With this personal focus, both professionals learn the importance of timing. Unplanned delays to surgery lead to poor outcomes,4 and glitches during operative lists create inefficiencies and frustration.5 Chefs also understand the sequelae of delays: spoilt food and hungry diners. They avoid this with meticulous timing as a product of anticipation, practice and clear communication. A restaurant's success is judged by both reputation and, because of financial necessity, by the number of profitable diners fed. This is effectively ‘payment by performance’, and has been a strategy to shorten surgery waiting lists and improve care over the last decade.6 It remains to be seen how the proposed abolition of NHS targets will affect the reputation of surgical provision. While surgical training is changing,7 both professions are still taught through the apprenticeship model and necessarily dependent upon an effective teacher–apprentice dynamic. With reduced hours and the conversion to shift work patterns, many surgical trainees have no continuity with their trainers, and would be envious of the stable supervision that the head chef provides to underlings. Both experts pass on technical skills and understanding: the chef looks, smells and tastes; the surgeon looks, listens and feels. Admired techniques are adopted; others rejected. But with practice, careful supervision and encouragement, the successful trainee matures from assisting lipoma excisions to teaching endarterectomies, and the kitchen assistant graduates from peeling potatoes to demonstrating how to create sashimi and manage a restaurant. As the surgeon develops a subspecialist niche, the chef cultivates a signature dish. Cookery has even benefited from evidence-based practice. The structured methodological analysis of ‘molecular gastronomy’ elucidates which culinary dogma is relevant and why. It produces rationale for streamlining processes, improving outcome, reducing mishaps and facilitating innovation. There are international seminars and professorships in the discipline,8 and at El Bulli in Catalonia and the Fat Duck in Berkshire, virtual databases of structured culinary experiments.9 Surgeon scientists have modified practice, for example following the extensive investigation of the effect of temperature on patient outcome during surgery.10,11 Research has taught the gourmet chef to use liquid nitrogen to create smooth crystal-free ice cream, and sous-vide waterbaths to poach the perfect steaks.8 Technological developments provide novelty and excitement, and, as has been demonstrated with minimally invasive surgery, can improve patient care. Nevertheless, reminded that a well-honed traditional fruit crumble trumps any botched bacon and egg ice cream,12 we must be sure that surgical innovation provides a genuine improvement upon the status quo. For example, Da Vinci surgical robots (Intuitive Surgical, California) offer many theoretical advantages over open or laparoscopic surgery, but cost-effective clinical benefits must be proven before there is more widespread uptake.13 In some respects, the gourmet kitchen resembles the surgical firm of a previous era: extreme hours not protected by the European Working Time Directive, under the Ramsay-esque control of an autocratic consultant. But as surgery has learnt and borrowed concepts of incident reporting from aviation, and teamwork from the Ferrari pitlane,14 perhaps it can learn from high-end cuisine, even if just to marinate the thoughts and be reminded of the need for excellence and attention to detail.

WIPO-WTO RELATIONS AND THE FUTURE OF GLOBAL INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY NORMS

The World Trade Organization's (WTO) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) has been the focus of intense scholarly debate regarding the effects of IP protection on the development interests of the global South. Far less attention has been directed at the organizational framework in which future IP norms should be developed. The governing assumption has been that the norm-setting role of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) remains unchanged notwithstanding the primacy of the WTO as an Organization with explicit mandate for global IP regulation.In this Article, I argue that the WTO, in a hierarchical division of labor with WIPO, should be promoted as the locus of IP norm-setting, particularly with respect to those norms that affect the regulation and supply of global public goods. IP norm-setting in the WTO is not without risks. Nonetheless, an organizational culture in which IP protection is one of many tools to accomplish defined welfare goals, rather than the raison d'etre of the organization's existence, may force open important institutional space in which future IP norms consistent both with the interests of less developed countries and the ideals of mature IP systems, can be meaningfully negotiated. At a minimum, a hierarchical relationship could facilitate inter-institutional competition between the WTO and WIPO, generating additional welfare gains for the international community in the form of greater transparency in the processes of IP norm-setting, improvements in the democratic deficit inherent in international organizations generally, as well as systemic gains from enhanced accountability in the global management of IP.

From sectors to functions: producer services, metropolisation and agglomeration forces in the Ile-de-France region

This paper reviews the role of producer services in the scientific debate on metropolisation processes and discusses the different types of agglomeration economies. Based on the critical appraisal of sectoral based approaches, it develops a more functional case study of the geography of producer services in the Paris metropolitan region to test the form and nature of economic specialization. The results confirm the multipolar-monocentric pattern which seems to be a common feature in many European cities. The paper concludes on the importance of a functional and hierarchical division of labor in the Paris city-region.

The Social Relations of Farming in the Early American Republic: A Microhistorical Approach

All economic activity is entangled in a web of social institutions, customs, beliefs and attitudes. Outcomes are indubitably affected by these background factors, some of which change slowly and gradually, others erratically. . . . Economic theory can only gain from being taught something about range of possibilities in human societies.Robert E. Solow, Economics: Is Something Missing? in William N. Parker (ed.), Economic History and Modern Economist (Oxford, UK, 1986), 22, 24.In a useful review of state of historical knowledge on farming in northern United States during nineteenth century, Jeremy Atack, Fred Bateman, and William Parker conclude that farmers behaved consistently with rational choice: they settled best soils first, their mobility patterns maximized their human capital, they diversified against risk, they responded to prices, they tried to smooth out seasonal labor usage, and they capitalized on knowledge of markets and production techniques. . . . While individual performance varied enormously, northern farmers as a group proved to be economically responsive actors in a capitalist system. The description attributes extraordinary efficiency to rise of what Max Weber defined as Zweckrationalitat, cost-effective adequation of means to goals. Of course, there were protesters who challenged that massive evolution because the system produced large numbers of who had much to complain about. Yet even if their fate were to succeed in sustaining authors' attention, they hardly ever to offer alternative visions of society because they accepted (what might be called) rules of game. Their discourses positively betrayed their marginalization, their incapacity to profit from development they proposed to rein in, to regulate, but not to stop. In any case, their objections were doomed to failure and thus corroborate evolution's overarching and assured success. The authors leave no doubt about inevitable forward march of progress, in this case triumph of most lucrative way of running a farm (or of modernization or, as it stands, capitalism).1The view from The First American Frontier, Wilma Dunaway's amply documented account of Transition to Capitalism in Southern between 1700 and 1860, provides a detailed, richly textured picture of how capitalist center expanded into known world's periphery. Capitalism, at once personified (it survives, grows, and combats) and reified (it combines three major mechanisms), determined and directed choices open to, and made by, region's inhabitants. They engaged in activities that linked Appalachia to world market: fur trade at very beginning, agriculture (grains, livestock, tobacco, cotton, fruits, and wool) and extractive industries (such as iron ore, copper, lead) later. The general movement's logic appears inescapable, and people's lives indeed reflect[ed] their location within hierarchical division of labor [in world system]. This peripheral, subordinate position in turn appeared to shape very forms of resistance to oppose juggernaut's inexorable forward march. The region as a whole seemed to be replicating many of characteristic patterns of development that had advanced to a higher technological level in other parts of capitalist world economy. In short, monographic narrative serves as an illustration of a general dynamic: economic efficiency based on regional advantages assured participation in world system, which left little, if indeed any, choice to people but to follow predetermined life paths.2Things, of course, appear in a different light when approached from other end. This is not to deny existence of big structures and large processes. But it means reaffirming place and role of women and men who encounter them. Take variegated social experiences of rural losers in long-term movement toward economic rationalization (moving to agricultural wage labor, to far-off lands, to other occupations? …

Change in Classroom Relations: An Attempt that Signals Some Difficulties

This article describes attempts to change classroom relations and the obstacles encountered in the search for new learning possibilities for bothstudents and faculty. In a graduate course with three different groups of students, the author used insights from critical theory to change the hierarchical division of labor and classroom incentives and to ask students to bring their life into the learning process. One roadblock to reform is the preservation of identities: Students remain consumers while teachers continue to manage knowledge production. When they prefer to comply with certain social roles rather than challenge them, education is little more than a certification process.

METAPHORS OF COMMERCE: TRANS-VALUING TRIBALISM IN YEMENI AUDIOCASSETTE POETRY

Over the course of more than three decades, efforts to integrate theories of political economy with verbal culture have produced some of the most generative inquiries into the social meaning of discursive form. Beginning in the 1960s, sociolinguists developed what became known as the “ethnography of speaking,”1 with the aim of considering verbal skills and performance as aspects of a socioeconomic system whose resources are apportioned according to a hierarchical division of labor. Critical of the more formalist and universalist language paradigms of Leonard Bloomfield and Noam Chomsky, these theorists argued that speaking is a socially and culturally constructed activity that is meaningful precisely in its relationship to specific systems of material organization. By the 1970s, sociologists were extending these insights to broader political theory by proposing that linguistic competence be considered a form of “capital” that is distributed in “linguistic markets.”2 Through pioneering interdisciplinary efforts, inquiries into the competences of individual speakers gradually yielded to analyses of situated calculations that individuals make in exchange—calculations of quantities and kinds of return, of symbolic and economic capital, of alternative representations. Meaning was becoming as much a matter of value and power as it was an expression of relationships between, as Ferdinand de Saussure once proposed, a “sound pattern” and a “concept.”3 Indeed, in recent work in linguistic and cultural anthropology, studies of meaning have been linked even more intentionally to political economy by scholars who locate signs within social and material contexts. Words are things that circulate as signs through social, symbolic, and economic trajectories4 and are refracted through linguistic markets that are multiple and shifting.5 Building on earlier social anthropology, these studies suggest that, even within one tightly knit social community, exchange becomes meaningful only at the intersection of multiple systems of value.

Cosmic reproduction, economics and politics among the Kulina of Southwest Amazonia

Kulina cosmology legitimates the monopoly of the mystical means of reproduction by male shamans and leaders. This control is accompanied by a degree of manipulation of female sexuality and reproduction by shamanic and other means. It is also correlated with a hierarchical division of labour in which men are primary providers, and leaders are paradigmatic providers. This calls into question the commonly angelic or neo‐Rousseauist vision of the indigenous societies of the Amazon as egalitarian.

Mapping an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India, 1765-1843

Reviewed by: Mapping an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India Lisa Blansett Matthew Edney. Mapping an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India, 1765–1843 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997). Pp. 458. $35.00. One of the major Enlightenment projects undertaken by the British lay in the area of measurement. Indeed, a kind of fetish for accuracy formed the foundation for a variety of instrumental practices that affected social order, spatial planning, and state formation. Another project was the construction of the British Empire, pushing the boundaries of the kingdom beyond the reaches of the setting sun. Examining the intersection of these two projects from an interdisciplinary perspective is a prodigious undertaking. Matthew Edney, whose academic title itself defies disciplinary boundaries, has produced an excellent study of mapping and empire, interesting and provocative in its analysis of the collusion between cartographic practices and the practices of “conquest and government” (1). As “associate professor of geography-anthropology and American and New England studies and faculty scholar in the Osher Map Library and Smith Center for Cartographic Education at the University of Southern Maine” (book jacket), Edney has sought to dismantle the notion that the map is the territory, that it functions as an accurate and transparent transcription of the world. In fact, Edney rather boldly calls the assumptions underlying the realist-map “incorrect and lazy” (339). Despite this single instance of moralizing, his work modifies the assumptions of positivist science that he finds in the history of cartography and geography. Instead he examines shared codes and representations of “the arena of overlap between the ideology of map-making and the ideology of empire” (32). [End Page 113] The book is thus presented as a revision, and as such, sets out to transform the way scientists, including geographers and, to a certain extent, historians of cartography, have seen and re-presented one textual object, the map. To this end, Edney incorporates recent theories of representation, textuality, and cultural production. His most prominent invocation is of Michel Foucault, in particular his theories of knowledge detailed in The Order of Things (trans. 1970) and his history of the disciplinary panopticon (Discipline and Punish [trans. 1977]). Edney argues very ably that surveying, mapmaking, and the material map create an archive of knowledge, which then provides the reproducible documents for systematic control of India. Most compellingly, to my mind, he suggests that the map itself becomes the master metaphor of the archive and of knowledge, the symbol of property and domination. Edney’s comprehensive study covers the construction of the archive from the surveys of Bengal conducted by James Rennell, for the East India Company from 1765 to 1771, to the end of the Great Trigonometrical Survey (GTS) under the towering figure, George Everest. Of the book’s four parts, sections 1 and 2 function in part as background in that they provide a history of science and an overview of the East India Company’s work in India. I found these two sections the most interesting: Edney theorizes the map and the gaze, as well as the class, racial (and, only briefly noted) gender implications of practicing British empiricist science; and how, through mapmaking, the British were able to create “an essentialist opposition between the Indians and themselves” (33). In addition, parts 1 and 2 detail important epistemological ruptures between its two historical points. With a variety of drawings, he demonstrates how science and aesthetics figure the gaze, as evinced in representations of the picturesque in India which, consequently, had to be refigured to fit the landscape. Edney also traces the differences between the two types of survey, the route survey with surveyor pushing a perambulator over hill and dale (all the while avoiding the odd pothole in the road), and the GTS in which “the surveyor first calculated the relative positions of locations and then plotted them” (105). The latter method is more abstract and more accurate, and creates a more perfect panopticon for the British. The British also used the mathematical skills required of trigonometry to create a “socio-intellectual hierarchy,” and “hierarchical division of labor by race” to keep most Indians out of helping map their country, thus limiting indigenous...

What work is real? Changing roles of farm and ranch wives in South-Eastern Ohio

The paper discusses the changing tasks of farm and ranch wives during the period 1910–1985 in a county in the economically depressed region of south-eastern Ohio. Analysis is based on interviews conducted in the summer of 1985 with women aged from 27 to 86. Some task changes are due to technological innovation in the home and the farm and to broader industrial restructuring within the agricultural manufacturing system. Other changes follow from patriarchal rules and divisions of labour within the family. Technological innovation is implemented into a gendered and hierarchical division of labour. The discussion emphasizes the role perceptions of the women, noting the words and methods they themselves use to describe their role. What emerges is a picture of a role which tends to ‘absorb the slack and tension’ generated by the multiple changes within agriculture. The gendered division of labour continues, often altered and with manifest role confusion, but clearly gendered.

The development of the nursing labor force in the United States: a basic analysis.

In this article, we draw together some basic material on the objectives character of the nursing labor force in the United States. First, we present a statistical and descriptive picture of the nursing labor force as it exists today. Then we analyze the historical development of that labor force up to about 1950, stressing its general integration into a hierarchical and concentrated health industry. Finally, we look at the development of the nursing labor force over the past 25 years in terms of factors such as sex, race, age educational credentials, labor force participation, place of work, and the hierarchical division of labor, discussing the general implications of the changes in these factors for worker organization in the health industry. Our main conclusion is that the nursing labor force is in a kiey position to lead a movement for the restructing of the health industry to serve the health needs of the American people rather than the profit and power requirements of the health employers. The primary, and difficult, task ahead is to build labor organization which will have the vision and unity to work this goal.