Abundance Of Heterotrophic Nanoflagellates Research Articles

Do weathered microplastics impact the planktonic community? A mesocosm approach in the Baltic Sea

Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous pollutants of increasing concern in aquatic systems. However, little is still known about the impacts of weathered MPs on plankton at the community level after long-term exposure. In this study, we investigated the effects of weathered MPs on the structure and dynamics of a Baltic Sea planktonic community during ca. 5 weeks of exposure using a mesocosm approach (2 m3) mimicking natural conditions. MPs were obtained from micronized commercial materials of polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyamide (nylon) previously weathered by thermal ageing and sunlight exposure. The planktonic community was exposed to 2 μg L-1 and 2 mg L-1 of MPs corresponding to measured particle concentrations (10–120 μm) of 680 MPs L-1 and 680 MPs mL-1, respectively. The abundance and composition of all size classes and groups of plankton and chlorophyll concentrations were periodically analyzed throughout the experiment. The population dynamics of the studied groups showed some variations between treatments, with negative and positive effects of MPs exhibited depending on the group and exposure time. The abundance of heterotrophic bacteria, pico- and nanophytoplankton, cryptophytes, and ciliates was lower in the treatment with the higher MP concentration than in the control at the last weeks of the exposure. The chlorophyll concentration and the abundances of heterotrophic nanoflagellates, Astromoeba, dinoflagellate, diatom, and metazooplankton were not negatively affected by the exposure to MPs and, in some cases, some groups showed even higher abundances in the MP treatments. Despite these tendencies, statistical analyses indicate that in most cases there were no statistically significant differences between treatments over the exposure period, even at very high exposure concentrations. Our results show that weathered MPs of the studied conventional plastic materials have minimal or negligible impact on planktonic communities after long-term exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations.

Extracted Spectral Signatures from the Water Column as a Tool for the Prediction of the Structure of a Marine Microbial Community

In this communication, we present an innovative approach leveraging advanced Machine Learning (ML) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques, specifically the Non-Negative Matrix Factorization (NMF) method, to analyze downward and upward light spectra collected by Hyperspectral Ocean Color Radiometer (HyperOCR, HOCR) sensors in the water column. Our work focuses on the development of a robust and efficient tool for unraveling the structure and activities of natural microbial assemblages in the ocean. By applying the NMF method to HyperOCR data, we successfully extracted five spectral signatures, representing unique patterns in the data. These signatures were instrumental in predicting the abundances of various microbial components, including bacteria, heterotrophic nanoflagellates, and picoeukaryotes, showcasing the potential of ML and AI in advancing oceanographic studies. To validate these methods, the study area included a shallow coastal area under the influence of freshwater inflow and an open offshore area with a depth of 100 m. The study sites in coastal and offshore waters (Kaštela Bay and Stončica Vis, respectively) had significantly different hydrographic and microbiological characteristics. Kaštela Bay had lower temperatures and salinity than the site on Vis. We have demonstrated prediction of the structure of the microbial community through application of different AI and ML methods with specific HOCR sensors.

Algae–zooplankton relationships during the year-round cyanobacterial blooms in a shallow lake

Cyanobacterial blooms have a strong impact on the food web structure, interactions and ecosystem functioning. The aim of this study was to describe the seasonal changes in composition and abundance of heterotrophic nanoflagellates, ciliates, rotifers, and crustaceans in relation to algae and nutrients in a shallow eutrophic lake (north-eastern Poland) dominated by cyanobacteria and exposed to the strong impact of cormorants. Our results showed that algae accounted for a small part of the total phytoplankton abundance (9–40%) and biomass (10–21%) and were dominated by diatoms and cryptophytes. All of the studied groups of planktonic organisms were quite rich in species (95 algal, 79 ciliate, 44 rotifer and 25 crustacean species) and relatively abundant. Copepods formed a substantial part (45–83%) of the total zooplankton biomass during all seasons. Relatively low algal to zooplankton biomass ratio (0.8–1.1) suggests that during spring, summer, and winter algae were not sufficient food resources for metazooplankton, which supplemented its diet with protists (heterotrophic nanoflagellates and ciliates). In a shallow lake dominated by cyanobacteria, winter (ice-covered period) may be a more favourable period for the growth of some groups of algae, ciliates and rotifers than other seasons due to decreasing abundance of cyanobacteria.

Seasonality of top-down control of bacterioplankton at two central Red Sea sites with different trophic status.

The role of bottom-up (nutrient availability) and top-down (grazers and viruses mortality) controls on tropical bacterioplankton have been rarely investigated simultaneously from a seasonal perspective. We have assessed them through monthly samplings over 2 years in inshore and offshore waters of the central Red Sea differing in trophic status. Flow cytometric analysis allowed us to distinguish five groups of heterotrophic bacteria based on physiological properties (nucleic acid content, membrane integrity and active respiration), three groups of cyanobacteria (two populations of Synechococcus and Prochlorococcus), heterotrophic nanoflagellates (HNFs) and three groups of viruses based on nucleic acid content. The dynamics of bacterioplankton and their top-down controls varied with season and location, being more pronounced in inshore waters. HNFs abundances showed a strong preference for larger prey inshore (r = -0.62 to -0.59, p = 0.001-0.002). Positive relationships between viruses and heterotrophic bacterioplankton abundances were more marked inshore (r = 0.67, p < 0.001) than offshore (r = 0.44, p = 0.03). The negative correlation between HNFs and viruses abundances (r = -0.47, p = 0.02) in shallow waters indicates a persistent seasonal switch between protistan grazing and viral lysis that maintains the low bacterioplankton stocks in the central Red Sea area.

Distribution, Size-Morphological Structure and Production of Heterotrophic Bacterioplankton in Gorky Reservoir

The abundance, biomass, size-morphological structure, growth rate and production of bacterioplankton, the intensity of primary phytoplankton production and dark fixation of CO2, as well as the abundance and biomass of heterotrophic nanoflagellates were determined in a large plain eutrophic reservoir (Gorky Reservoir, Middle Volga). The abundance, biomass, and production of bacterioplankton were relatively high and averaged 7.6 × 106 cells/mL, 117.9 mg C/m3, and 59.2 mg C/(m3 × day), respectively. Heterotrophic nanoflagellates reached a high level of quantitative development – 6.9 × 103 cells/mL, 47.9 mg C/m3. Their biomass averaged 41.6 ± 18.4% of the bacterioplankton biomass, which indicates that, in addition to bacteria, nanoflagellates used other food sources. Small rods and cocci dominated among the size-morphological bacterioplankton groups and accounted for 36.3 and 33.3% of its total abundance, respectively. Small rods averaged more than a half (56.2%) of the total biomass and were the most stable component of the community. The growth rate and production of bacterioplankton increased in those parts of the reservoir where the medium-sized cocci and coccobacilli accounted for from 18.2 to 29.3% of the total abundance. The highest bacterial activity was recorded in the area affected by the warm waste waters of the Volgorechensk State District Power Plant. Based on the data obtained, the reservoir divided on the upper river section and the lower lake section.

Top-Down Controls of Bacterial Metabolism: A Case Study from a Temperate Freshwater Lake Ecosystem.

In freshwater environments, limited data exist on the impact of mortality forces (viruses and heterotrophic nanoflagellates) on bacterial growth efficiency (BGE, index of bacterial carbon metabolism) compared to resource availability. An investigation to determine the relative influence of viral lysis and flagellate predation (top-down forces) on BGE was conducted in a mesotrophic freshwater system (Lake Goule, France) with time and space. Viral abundance was significantly (p < 0.001) related to bacterial abundance by a power law function with an exponent less than 1, emphasizing that the increases in host population (bacteria) together with viruses were not proportionate. A lytic viral strategy was evident throughout the study period, with high lysis of the bacterial population (up to 60%) supported by viral production rates. Viral processes (lysis and production) that were influenced by bacterial production and heterotrophic nanoflagellate abundance had a positive impact on BGE. Estimates of BGE were variable (9.9–45.5%) due to uncoupling between two metabolic parameters—namely bacterial production and respiration. The existence of a synergistic relationship between viruses and flagellates with bacteria in Lake Goule highlighted the decisive impact of top-down agents in sustaining the bacterial carbon metabolism of non-infected population through the nature of vital resources released via mortality processes.

Do microbial planktonic communities reflect the ecological changes of Glorieuses coral reefs (Iles Eparses, Western Indian Ocean)?

Ecological baselines for the structure and functioning of ecosystems in the absence of human activity can provide essential information on their health status. The Glorieuses islands are located in the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) and can be considered as “pristine” ecosystems that have not been subjected to anthropogenic pressure. Their nutrient context and the microbial assemblages were assessed by determining the abundance of heterotrophic prokaryotes (archaea and bacteria), picocyanobacteria, picoeukaryotes, microphytoplankton and protozooplankton communities in five stations, during two contrasted periods (November 2015 and May 2016). Chlorophyll-a concentrations were always under 1 μg/L and associated to very low levels in orthophosphates, nitrate and dissolved organic carbon, revealing an ultra-oligotrophic status for the Glorieuses waters. Picocyanobacteria confirmed the ultra-oligotrophic status with a predominance of Synechococcus. Zeaxanthin associated with the presence of picocyanobacteria represented the major pigment in both surveys. Three indices of diversity (species richness, Shannon and Pielou indexes) from microscopy observations highlighted the difference of diversity in microphytoplankton between the surveys. A focus on a 16S metabarcoding approach showed a high dominance of picocyanobacteria, Alpha- and Gammaproteobacteria, regardless of station or period. Multivariate analyses (co-inertia analyses) revealed a strong variability of ecological conditions between the two periods, with (i) high nutrient concentrations and heterotrophic nanoflagellate abundance in November 2015, and (ii) high heterotrophic prokaryote and picoeukaryote abundance in May 2016. The impact of a category 5 tropical cyclone (Fantala) on the regional zone in April 2016 is also advanced to explain these contrasted situations. Relative importance of top-down factors between bacterial and heterotrophic nanoflagellates was observed in November 2015 with an active microbial food web. All the results indicate that three microbial indexes potentially can be considered to assess the ecological change in Glorieuses marine waters.

CARD-FISH and prey tracer techniques reveal the role of overlooked flagellate groups as major bacterivores in freshwater hypertrophic shallow lakes.

Heterotrophic nanoflagellates (HNF) and ciliates are major protistan planktonic bacterivores. The term HNF, however, describes a functional guild only and, in contrast to the morphologically distinguishable ciliates, does not reflect the phylogenetic diversity of flagellates in aquatic ecosystems. Associating a function with taxonomic affiliation of key flagellate taxa is currently a major task in microbial ecology. We investigated seasonal changes in the HNF and ciliate community composition as well as taxa-specific bacterivory in four hypertrophic freshwater lakes. Taxa-specific catalyzed reporter deposition-fluorescence in situ hybridization probes assigned taxonomic affiliations to 51%-96% (average ±SD, 75± 14%) of total HNF. Ingestion rates of fluorescently labelled bacteria unveiled that HNF contributed to total protist-induced bacterial mortality rates more (56%) than ciliates (44%). Surprisingly, major HNF bacterivores were aplastidic cryptophytes and their Cry1 lineage, comprising on average 53% and 24% of total HNF abundance and 67% and 21% of total HNF bacterivory respectively. Kinetoplastea were important consumers of bacteria during summer phytoplankton blooms, reaching 38% of total HNF. Katablepharidacea (7.5% of total HNF) comprised mainly omnivores, with changing contributions of bacterivorous and algivorous phylotypes. Our results show that aplastidic cryptophytes, accompanied by small omnivorous ciliate genera Halteria/Pelagohalteria, are the major protistan bacterivores in hypertrophic freshwaters.

Distribution and Relationship between Heterotrophic Organisms and Viruses on the East Siberian Sea Shelf

The distribution of heterotrophic bacteria, viruses, and heterotrophic nanoflagellates was studied in the shelf waters of the East Siberian Sea along the meridional transect from the Kolyma River delta in September. The production of heterotrophic bacteria and their mortality as a result of protozoan grazing and lysis of viruses were also determined. The patterns of the spatial distribution of microorganisms and viruses varied: the number of bacterioplankton decreased with increasing distance from the Kolyma delta, while, on the contrary, its size and biomass increased to the shelf areas with negative water temperatures. The highest abundance and biomass of virioplankton were recorded at the extreme southern and northern stations of the transect and the abundance and biomass of heterotrophic nanoflagellates increased from the south to the north. The studied shelf waters were characterized by a high concentration of fine-textured detrital particles, and, as a consequence, a relatively large number of viruses attached to detritus. The mortality of heterotrophic bacterioplankton accounted for most of its daily production. Protozoan grazing was the main cause of bacterial mortality that significantly exceeded their mortality due to viral lysis.

Enhanced Viral Activity in the Surface Microlayer of the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans.

The ocean surface microlayer (SML), with physicochemical characteristics different from those of subsurface waters (SSW), results in dense and active viral and microbial communities that may favor virus–host interactions. Conversely, wind speed and/or UV radiation could adversely affect virus infection. Furthermore, in polar regions, organic and inorganic nutrient inputs from melting ice may increase microbial activity in the SML. Since the role of viruses in the microbial food web of the SML is poorly understood in polar oceans, we aimed to study the impact of viruses on prokaryotic communities in the SML and in the SSW in Arctic and Antarctic waters. We hypothesized that a higher viral activity in the SML than in the SSW in both polar systems would be observed. We measured viral and prokaryote abundances, virus-mediated mortality on prokaryotes, heterotrophic and phototrophic nanoflagellate abundance, and environmental factors. In both polar zones, we found small differences in environmental factors between the SML and the SSW. In contrast, despite the adverse effect of wind, viral and prokaryote abundances and virus-mediated mortality on prokaryotes were higher in the SML than in the SSW. As a consequence, the higher carbon flux released by lysed cells in the SML than in the SSW would increase the pool of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and be rapidly used by other prokaryotes to grow (the viral shunt). Thus, our results suggest that viral activity greatly contributes to the functioning of the microbial food web in the SML, which could influence the biogeochemical cycles of the water column.

Elevated Contribution of Low Nucleic Acid Prokaryotes and Viral Lysis to the Prokaryotic Community Along the Nutrient Gradient From an Estuary to Open Ocean Transect.

Prokaryotes represent the largest living biomass reservoir in aquatic environments and play a crucial role in the global ocean. However, the factors that shape the abundance and potential growth rate of the ecologically distinct prokaryotic subgroups [i.e., high nucleic acid (HNA) and low nucleic acid (LNA) cells] along varying trophic conditions in the ocean remain poorly understood. This study conducted a series of modified dilution experiments to investigate how the abundance and potential growth rate of HNA and LNA prokaryotes and their regulating factors (i.e., protozoan grazing and viral lysis) change along a cross-shore nutrient gradient in the northern South China Sea. The results showed that the abundance of both HNA and LNA cells was significantly positively correlated with the abundance of heterotrophic nanoflagellates and viruses, whereas only HNA abundance exhibited a significant positive correlation with nutrient level. With a decreasing nutrient concentration, the potential growth rate of the HNA subgroup declined significantly, while that of the LNA subgroup was significantly enhanced, leading to an elevated relative potential growth rate of the LNA to HNA subgroup under decreasing nutrient levels. Furthermore, our data revealed different regulatory roles of protozoan grazing and viral lysis on the HNA and LNA subgroups, with HNA suffering higher mortality pressure from grazing than from lysis in contrast to LNA, which experienced equivalent pressures. As the nutrient levels declined, the relative contribution of lysis to the mortality of the HNA subgroup increased significantly, in contrast to the insignificant change in that of the LNA subgroup. Our results indicated the elevated role of LNA cells in the prokaryotic community and the enhanced viral lysis pressure on the total prokaryotes under oligotrophic conditions. This implies a weakened efficiency of carbon cycling within the microbial loop and enhanced viral lysis to shunt more carbon and energy flow in the future ocean, in which oligotrophication will be strengthened due to global warming.

Seasonal microbial food web dynamics in contrasting Southern Ocean productivity regimes

AbstractSpatial and seasonal dynamics of microbial loop fluxes were investigated in contrasting productivity regimes in the Indian sector of the Southern Ocean. Observations carried out in late summer (February–March 2018; project MOBYDICK) revealed higher microbial biomasses and fluxes in the naturally iron‐fertilized surface waters of Kerguelen island in comparison to surrounding off‐plateau waters. Differences were most pronounced for bacterial heterotrophic production (2.3‐fold), the abundance of heterotrophic nanoflagellates (HNF; 2.7‐fold). Independent of site, grazing by HNF was the main loss process of bacterial production (80–100%), while virus‐induced mortality was low (&lt; 9%). Combining these results with observations from previous investigations during early spring and summer allowed us to describe seasonal patterns in microbial food web fluxes and to compare these to carbon export in the iron‐fertilized and high‐nutrient, low‐chlorophyll (HNLC) Southern Ocean. Our data suggest an overall less efficient microbial food web during spring and summer, when respiration and viral lysis, respectively, represent important loss terms of bacterially‐mediated carbon. In late summer, primary production is more efficiently transferred to bacterial biomass and HNF and thus available for higher trophic levels. These results provide a new insight into the seasonal variability and the quantitative importance of microbial food web processes for the fate of primary production in the Southern Ocean.

Ocean acidification reduces growth and grazing impact of Antarctic heterotrophic nanoflagellates

Abstract. High-latitude oceans have been identified as particularly vulnerable to ocean acidification if anthropogenic CO2 emissions continue. Marine microbes are an essential part of the marine food web and are a critical link in biogeochemical processes in the ocean, such as the cycling of nutrients and carbon. Despite this, the response of Antarctic marine microbial communities to ocean acidification is poorly understood. We investigated the effect of increasing fCO2 on the growth of heterotrophic nanoflagellates (HNFs), nano- and picophytoplankton, and prokaryotes (heterotrophic Bacteria and Archaea) in a natural coastal Antarctic marine microbial community from Prydz Bay, East Antarctica. At CO2 levels ≥634 µatm, HNF abundance was reduced, coinciding with increased abundance of picophytoplankton and prokaryotes. This increase in picophytoplankton and prokaryote abundance was likely due to a reduction in top-down control of grazing HNFs. Nanophytoplankton abundance was elevated in the 634 µatm treatment, suggesting that moderate increases in CO2 may stimulate growth. The taxonomic and morphological differences in CO2 tolerance we observed are likely to favour dominance of microbial communities by prokaryotes, nanophytoplankton, and picophytoplankton. Such changes in predator–prey interactions with ocean acidification could have a significant effect on the food web and biogeochemistry in the Southern Ocean, intensifying organic-matter recycling in surface waters; reducing vertical carbon flux; and reducing the quality, quantity, and availability of food for higher trophic levels.

Multivariate control of heterotrophic bacterial abundance and zooplankton grazing in Labrador fjords (northeastern Canada)

This study was conducted in 4 Labrador fjords (Nachvak, Saglek, Okak, and Anaktalak) during the summers of 2007 and 2013, early fall 2010, and late fall 2009. Our results show that water temperature combined with the availability of nutrients and organic substrates are the main abiotic factors controlling the abundance of heterotrophic bacteria in Labrador fjords. Bacterivory also played a crucial role, with heterotrophic bacteria exerting a significant bottom-up control on the abundance of heterotrophic nanoflagellates (r = 0.35, p &lt; 0.05) and ciliates (r = 0.70, p &lt; 0.01). During summer 2013, the intrinsic phytoplankton growth rate varied between &lt;0 and 0.64 d-1, with a mean value of 0.36 d-1. The herbivory rate was highly variable, ranging from 0.01 to 0.86 d-1, with a mean value of 0.31 d-1. Grazing mortality was 6-fold higher than phytoplankton growth rate. Mean phytoplankton growth and herbivory rates in Labrador fjords were comparable to the Barents and Bering seas. The intrinsic growth rate of total heterotrophic bacteria ranged between &lt;0 and 0.68 d-1, with a mean value of 0.30 d-1. Bacterivory varied from 0.01 to 0.95 d-1, with a mean of 0.30 d-1. Mortality due to grazing was up to 2.3 times higher than total bacterial growth rate. This study improves our understanding of the factors influencing the dynamics of heterotrophic bacteria and indicates that herbivory and bacterivory exert substantial control on microbial communities in Labrador fjords.

Weekly variations of viruses and heterotrophic nanoflagellates and their potential impact on bacterioplankton in shallow waters of the central Red Sea.

ABSTRACTBacterioplankton play a pivotal role in marine ecosystems. However, their temporal dynamics and underlying control mechanisms are poorly understood in tropical regions such as the Red Sea. Here, we assessed the impact of bottom-up (resource availability) and top-down (viruses and heterotrophic nanoflagellates) controls on bacterioplankton abundances by weekly sampling a coastal central Red Sea site in 2017. We monitored microbial abundances by flow cytometry together with a set of environmental variables including temperature, salinity, dissolved organic and inorganic nutrients and chlorophyll a. We distinguished five groups of heterotrophic bacteria depending on their physiological properties relative nucleic acid content, membrane integrity and cell-specific respiratory activity, two groups of Synechococcus cyanobacteria and three groups of viruses. Viruses controlled heterotrophic bacteria for most of the year, as supported by a negative correlation between their respective abundances and a positive one between bacterial mortality rates and mean viral abundances. On the contrary, heterotrophic nanoflagellates abundance covaried with that of heterotrophic bacteria. Heterotrophic nanoflagellates showed preference for larger bacteria from both the high and low nucleic acid content groups. Our results demonstrate that top-down control is fundamental in keeping heterotrophic bacterioplankton abundances low (< 5 × 10 5 cells mL−1) in Red Sea coastal waters.

Picoplankton Distribution and Activity in the Deep Waters of the Southern Adriatic Sea

Southern Adriatic (Eastern Mediterranean Sea) is a region strongly dominated by large-scale oceanographic processes and local open-ocean dense water formation. In this study, picoplankton biomass, distribution, and activity were examined during two oceanographic cruises and analyzed in relation to environmental parameters and hydrographic conditions comparing pre and post-winter phases (December 2015, April 2016). Picoplankton density with the domination of autotrophic biomasses was higher in the pre-winter phase when significant amounts of picoaoutotrophs were also found in the meso-and bathy-pelagic layers, while Synechococcus dominated the picoautotrophic group. Higher values of bacterial production and domination of High Nucleic Acid content bacteria (HNA bacteria) were found in deep waters, especially during the post-winter phase, suggesting that bacteria can have an active role in the deep-sea environment. Aerobic anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria accounted for a small proportion of total heterotrophic bacteria but contributed up to 4% of bacterial carbon content. Changes in the picoplankton community were mainly driven by nutrient availability, heterotrophic nanoflagellates abundance, and water mass movements and mixing. Our results suggest that autotrophic and heterotrophic members of the picoplankton community are an important carbon source in the food web in the deep-sea, as well as in the epipelagic layer. Besides, viral lysis may affect the activity of the picoplankton community and enrich the water column with dissolved organic carbon.

Mixotrophy in nanoflagellates across environmental gradients in the ocean

Mixotrophy, the combination of autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition, is a common trophic strategy among unicellular eukaryotes in the ocean. There are a number of hypotheses about the conditions that select for mixotrophy, and field studies have documented the prevalence of mixotrophy in a range of environments. However, there is currently little evidence for how mixotrophy varies across environmental gradients, and whether empirical patterns support theoretical predictions. Here I synthesize experiments that have quantified the abundance of phototrophic, mixotrophic, and heterotrophic nanoflagellates, to ask whether there are broad patterns in the prevalence of mixotrophy (relative to pure autotrophy and heterotrophy), and to ask whether observed patterns are consistent with a trait-based model of trophic strategies. The data suggest that mixotrophs increase in abundance at lower latitudes, while autotrophs and heterotrophs do not, and that this may be driven by increased light availability. Both mixotrophs and autotrophs increase greatly in productive coastal environments, while heterotrophs increase only slightly. These patterns are consistent with a model of resource competition in which nutrients and carbon can both limit growth and mixotrophs experience a trade-off in allocating biomass to phagotrophy vs. autotrophic functions. Importantly, mixotrophy is selected for under a range of conditions even when mixotrophs experience a penalty for using a generalist trophic strategy, due to the synergy between photosynthetically derived carbon and prey-derived nutrients. For this reason mixotrophy is favored relative to specialist strategies by increased irradiance, while at the same time increased nutrient supply increases the competitive ability of mixotrophs against heterotrophs.

Pico- and Nanoplankton in Aquatic Ecosystems in the Valley of the Lakes and Great Lakes Depression (Mongolia)

The abundance and biomass of bacterioplankton, phototrophic picoplankton, and heterotrophic nanoflagellates has been determined in lakes, rivers, and reservoirs located in the Valley of the Lakes and Great Lakes Depression (Mongolia). The species richness of the heterotrophic flagellates and their consumption of bacteria are estimated. Pico- and nanoplankton are the most abundant in shallow mineral lakes Orog and Tatsyn and in the freshwater Durgun Reservoir. Heterotrophic nanoflagellates consume 26–92% (on average 66%) of the daily bacterioplankton production. Thus, flagellates are important in the transfer of bacterial carbon to the higher levels of planktonic trophic webs. A total of 30 species and their forms of heterotrophic flagellates from 14 large taxa are identified. The highest species diversity of these protists are found in the Durgun and Taishyr reservoirs.

Seasonal dynamics of transparent exopolymer particles (TEP) and their drivers in the coastal NW Mediterranean Sea

Transparent Exopolymer Particles (TEPs) are a subclass of organic particles with high impact in biogeochemical and ecological processes, such as the biological carbon pump, air-sea interactions, or the microbial loop. However, the complexity in production and consumption makes TEP dynamics hardly predictable, calling for the need of descriptive studies about the in situ dynamics of these particles. We followed monthly TEP dynamics and combined them with a dataset of environmental variables during three years in a coastal site of the oligotrophic North Western Mediterranean (Blanes Bay). TEP concentration, ranging from 11.3 to 289.1μgXGeqL−1 (average 81.7±11.7μgXGeqL−1), showed recurrent peaks in early summer (June–July). TEP were temporally disconnected from chlorophyll a maxima, that occurred in late winter and early spring (maxima 1.21μgL−1), but they were significantly related to the abundance of specific phytoplankton groups (diatoms and dinoflagellates) and also coincided with periods of low nutrient concentrations. The fraction of particulate organic carbon in the form of TEP (the TEP:POC and TEP:PM ratios) were also highest in early summer, indicating that TEP-enriched particles of low density accumulate in surface waters during stratified periods. We hypothesize that the accumulation of these particles affects the microbial food web by enhancing the activity of specific prokaryotic extracellular enzymes (esterase, β-glucosidase and alkaline phosphatase) and promoting the abundance of heterotrophic nanoflagellates.

Temperature regulation of marine heterotrophic prokaryotes increases latitudinally as a breach between bottom-up and top-down controls.

Planktonic heterotrophic prokaryotes make up the largest living biomass and process most organic matter in the ocean. Determining when and where the biomass and activity of heterotrophic prokaryotes are controlled by resource availability (bottom-up), predation and viral lysis (top-down) or temperature will help in future carbon cycling predictions. We conducted an extensive survey across subtropical and tropical waters of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans during the Malaspina 2010 Global Circumnavigation Expedition and assessed indices for these three types of controls at 109 stations (mostly from the surface to 4,000m depth). Temperature control was approached by the apparent activation energy in eV (ranging from 0.46 to 3.41), bottom-up control by the slope of the log-log relationship between biomass and production rate (ranging from -0.12 to 1.09) and top-down control by an index that considers the relative abundances of heterotrophic nanoflagellates and viruses (ranging from 0.82 to 4.83). We conclude that temperature becomes dominant (i.e. activation energy >1.5eV) within a narrow window of intermediate values of bottom-up (0.3-0.6) and top-down 0.8-1.2) controls. A pervasive latitudinal pattern of decreasing temperature regulation towards the Equator, regardless of the oceanic basin, suggests that the impact of global warming on marine microbes and their biogeochemical function will be more intense at higher latitudes. Our analysis predicts that 1°C ocean warming will result in increased biomass of heterotrophic prokaryoplankton only in waters with <26°C of mean annual surface temperature.