Hereditary Rulers Research Articles

Characteristics of the Development of Early Empires Based on a Comparison of Rome and Qin Han

Rome in the west and the Qin and Han dynasties in the east became empires after a long period of warfare in a similar period. Although both shared the characteristics of empires, they still showed significant differences on the road to unification. Rome, driven by the growing power of the aristocracy, kept squeezing civilians and eventually had inner conflicts which transformed the empire into monarchies under the pressure of popular sentiment and aristocratic plutocracy. On the other hand, Qin and Han, under the premise of emphasizing blood ties, kept weakening the tradition of the previous period, laying down the logic of hereditary rule of the dynasty with divinely granted human rights and ensuring the stability of the dynasty with stable local administration and grassroots power under civil governance. This paper will take a comparative historical approach, focusing on Rome and the Qin and Han dynasties. It is illustrated from the formation of the empire and its early manifestations in politics, economy, culture, military administration, and local governance systems to explore what characteristics the early empire had.

Monarchy in the Republic – Sultanate of Yogyakarta in the Republic of Indonesia

The purpose of this article is to present the key elements of the unique system of the Yogyakarta Sultanate as the monarchical part of Indonesia’s republican system, against the theoretical background of the concept of ‘monarchy within a republic’ and the trends in the systemic practice of modern monarchies. Indonesia is in many respects a unique example of a mixed system in which republican and monarchical elements coexist. The incorporation of monarchical elements into the republican system has been done in a very original way – by giving one region of the state dual constitutional status, with the traditional ruler of that territory in the dual role of republican governor and hereditary ruler. The Yogyakarta Sultanate, despite its uniqueness, is subject to problems typical of all modern monarchies, arising from the need to adapt to civilizational and cultural changes, such as gender equality, while respecting rich traditions and cultural identity.

Brief Synopses of New Arabic-Language Publications

Brief Synopses of New Arabic-Language Publications

Warcraft: The legitimacy building of usurpers

Abstract Rulers ascending to the throne differ substantially in their need for legitimization. This paper asks: will a usurper who took power by unlawful means build legitimacy through war? Using warfare data from historical China (750 BCE-1911), we show that usurpers initiated 40.2% more wars than did hereditary rulers against nomadic neighbors. Usurpers waged and won more wars early in their reign and converged to rulers’ average warring frequencies later. To address the endogeneity concern, we use rulers’ birth orders as an instrument for usurper identity. We show that usurpers also outperformed hereditary rulers in other peaceful legitimization strategies such as amnesties and political marriages, which, together with war increased usurpers’ survival odds. However, usurpers were not as proactive in abolishing the vassals, from which many originated.

Abbâsî Halifelerinin Seçimi ve Türk Komutanların Rolü (750-892 Yılları)

Hilâfet, Hz. Peygamber’in vefatından sonraki devlet başkanlığı kurumunun adıdır. Hz. Peygamber’den sonra ilk halife Hz. Ebûbekir’dir. Bu dönemin diğer halifeleri Hz. Ömer, Hz. Osman, Hz. Ali ve Hz. Hasan ya seçim yoluyla veya Şûra yoluyla halife olmuşlardır. Râşid Halifeler döneminde dört halifenin her biri Kureyş kabilesinin ayrı kolundandır ve biri diğerinin akrabası değildir. Halifeliğin veliahdlık ve hanedan idaresine dönüştürülmesine Emevîler döneminde Hz. Muâviye’nin, oğlu Yezîd’i yerine veliahd tayin etmesiyle başlamış. 90 yıl boyunca Emevîlerin yıkılışına kadar devam etmiştir. Bu dönemde halifeler, Emevî ailesinden Ehlü’l-Hal ve’l-Akd adı verilen Şûra tarafından onaylanmıştır. Emevîler döneminde komutanların geniş yetkilere sahip olmalarına rağmen halife seçimine müdahale etmelerine izin verilmemiştir. Abbâsîler döneminde ise halifeler, Emevîler döneminde olduğu gibi veraseten Abbasoğulları ailesinden seçilmişlerdir. Bu dönemde devletin askeri teşkilatını oluşturan Araplar ve İranlılardan memnun olmayan halifeler Türkleri orduya dâhil etmişlerdir. Halife Mansûr döneminden itibaren orduya dâhil edilen Türklerin sayıları Harûn Reşîd ve Me’mûn dönemlerinde artmış, Mu’tasım döneminde ise zirveye ulaşmıştır. Türkler Halife Mütevekkil dönemine kadar siyasi ve askeri alanda başarılı olmasına rağmen hiçbir zaman veliahd ve halife tayinine müdahale etmemişlerdir. Ancak Mütevekkil’in seçiminden itibaren Türk komutanları Ehlü’l-Hal ve’l-Akd adı verilen Şûra içinde yer alarak seçimlerde söz sahibi olmuşlar ve bu durum Sâmerrâ döneminde etkisini göstermiştir.

Reconsidering Local versus Central: Empire, Notables, and Employment in Ottoman Albania and Kurdistan, 1835–1878

AbstractThe present article is a study of provincial administration in the nineteenth-century Ottoman Albania and Kurdistan. It examines the transformation of provincial administration in Dibra and Hazro after two towns’ hereditary rulers were exiled. Focusing on the employment patterns of the notables in exile as well as the ones who occupied the posts in the absence of the former, this study challenges the binary framework mostly employed in conceptualizing the making of the modern Ottoman state. Particularly, the employment of the notables exiled to the distant parts of the empire necessitates a revision in the presumptions about the origins of appointed Ottoman officials. By focusing on the partnership operating by means of employment, this study argues that the making of Ottoman state follows a trajectory of flexible centralization based on the partnership between the government and notables, terms of which were constantly negotiated.

‘Dynasty’ in modern German intellectual history: many concepts, or none?

ABSTRACT This article analyses the conceptual use of terms describing dynastic rule in modern German thought. It examines three topics in which the term ‘dynasty’ specifically appears: with reference to the non-European empires, European states, and the future of democracy in Germany around 1918. Looking at a range of key thinkers with Max Weber's work as a central reference point, it engages with the question why, despite this wide usage, the influential dictionary Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe does not cover any term describing hereditary rule. The conclusion provides a range of possible explanations for the absence.

Artificial plateau construction during the Preclassic period at the Maya site of Ceibal, Guatemala.

Investigations at the Maya site of Ceibal, Guatemala, documented an artificial plateau, measuring 600 x 340 m in horizontal dimensions and 6 to 15 m in height. Unlike highly visible pyramids, such horizontally extensive constructions covered by the rainforest are difficult to recognize on the ground, but airborne laser scanning (LiDAR) revealed its planned form. Excavations carried out over many years provided data on its construction sequence, fill volumes, and labor investments. The initial construction of the plateau occurred around 950 B.C. when a formal ceremonial complex was built in its center. This was the period when the inhabitants of the Maya lowlands were adopting a new way of life with greater reliance on maize agriculture, full sedentism, and ceramic use. The inhabitants of areas surrounding Ceibal, who retained certain levels of residential mobility, probably participated in the construction of the plateau. In this regard, the Ceibal plateau is comparable to monumental constructions that emerged before or during the transition to agriculture or sedentism in other parts of the world. The data from Ceibal compel researchers to examine the social implications of monumental constructions in the Maya lowlands before the establishment of centralized polities with hereditary rulers. Unlike pyramids, where access to the summits may have been limited to privileged individuals, the horizontal monumentality of the plateau was probably more conducive to inclusive interaction. The Ceibal plateau continued to be built up during the Preclassic period (1000 B.C.-A.D. 175), and its fill volume substantially surpassed those of pyramids. Large-scale construction projects likely promoted organizational and managerial innovations among participants, which may have set the stage for later administrative centralization.

Two antiquities – one policy: the «tribute of dorpat» and the «tribute of kazan» in Russian diplomacy and historical thought in 1550–60s

In the beginning of 1550s the diplomats of Russian Tsar Ivan IV for the first time used the legend about «Kazan tribute» and «Dorpat tribute» to justify the historical rule over Kazan and German Livonia. The story about «Kazan tribute» was firstly mainstreamed during the reign of Ivan IV; however, the «Dorpat tribute» was mentioned in the Russian-Livonian treaties of 15th century – its origin is still unknown. For the first time in historiography this article compares two stories. The author examines the sources of both legends, their author, the role in the justification of the continuity between the ancient Rus’ of Rurikovichi and Moscow Russia of Ivan IV, the relation between the terms «otchina» (paternity), «dan’» (tribute), «zemlya» (land). Since the 1470s Moscow began to rethink the tribute relationships, that had been established in Mongol-Turk political space. This resulted in an attempt to stop the payments for the Chan of Crimea (1473) and to demand the tribute from the Bishop of Dorpat (Russian Yuryev, 1474). Based on the Text of «Primary chronicle» the Russian intellectuals claimed the identity of Volga Bulgaria and Kazan, ancient Russian Yuryev and German Dorpat in the text of Nikon Chronicle. The main criterion for the hereditary rule over the territory was «zemlya» (land) as the political category, regardless of the ethnicity and religion of its population. The author concludes that the courtier Alexey Adashev edited the story about «Dorpat tribute» following the example of «Kazan tribute» story. Thus, there is a direct intertextual dependence between the two stories.

EPIGRAPHIC DISKS AND HORSEMEN RELIEFS ON THE STELAS FROM THE FAMILY CEMETERY OF KAITAG RULERS

The paper presents some of the study results of the family cemetery of hereditary rulers of Kaitag, located in Qala-Quraysh. During several expeditions in 2017–2018, more than 40 stelas, dating XIV c. – 1803/04, were studied. Names of the deceased, dates of their death, and other historical information, as well as poems, religious sayings, prayers and Quran Ayat in Arabic are inscribed on them. The stelas are made with high craftsmanship, distinguished by the refinement of the ornament and the elegance of epigraphic ribbons. Each stela of the necropolis can be described as a work of art. Among other interesting finds there are ten epigraphic disks on the stelas of the XVI–XVIII c. They are carved on the backsides of the monuments, have common composition, ornament, and similar contents: prayers to Allah for mercy on Judgment day. The article also describes horsemen relief images on two stelas of the early XVIII c., as well as a false horseman, carved on the tombstone of the late XVI c. Compositional decision of the relief is such that the weapons and armor are located above the horse, creating an effect of the rider’s presence, although the rider himself is not there. If the image weren’t stained, it would be impossible to reveal that it is not a horseman. The effect of presence is achieved by different artistic techniques. Among them is the image of a moving horse.The introduction of stated elements of tombstone decoration into scientific circulation contributes to dating of monuments with identical decor, and revealing interregional connections in stone carving craft.

MULTIDIRECTIONAL INTERPOLATION OF LIDAR DATA FROM SOUTHERN VERACRUZ, MEXICO: IMPLICATIONS FOR EARLY OLMEC SUBSISTENCE

AbstractFrom their beginnings some 4,000 years ago to their decadence around 400 b.c., the Olmec people achieved a high level of sociopolitical complexity and dominated their native geographic territory, the southern Gulf Coast of Mexico. The first Olmec capital of San Lorenzo, Veracruz, was the only site in Mesoamerica that produced imposing monumental stone sculpture and architecture between 1800 and 1000 b.c. These characteristics reflect the capabilities of its centralized political system headed by hereditary rulers with divine legitimation. Key issues regarding the development of San Lorenzo Olmec culture center on subsistence and environment. The present study focuses on a portion of the landscape located immediately north of the first Olmec capital of San Lorenzo, Veracruz, that has been proposed as a key resource area during the development of the first civilization in Mesoamerica. We calculate the surface, volume, and water depth of this area based on archaeological data and a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) derived from an airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) survey. The expected minimum and maximum area, local minimum altitude, and the DTM of 5-m spatial resolution provide a basis for inferences regarding the characteristics of the wetland ecosystem during Olmec times. The goal is to quantify and qualify the potential of this resource zone relying on LiDAR topography. Our models validate the observations in the field and, when combined with algorithms, they confirm the archaeological conclusions. We affirm that the northern plain in Olmec times was deeper than it is today and would have been a source of abundant aquatic resources for the primary subsistence of the early Olmec society.

Royal Heirs in Imperial Germany: The Future of Monarchy in Nineteenth-Century Bavaria, Saxony and Württemberg by Frank Lorenz Müller

Reviewed by: Royal Heirs in Imperial Germany: The Future of Monarchy in Nineteenth-Century Bavaria, Saxony and Württemberg by Frank Lorenz Müller Gavin Wiens Müller, Frank Lorenz – Royal Heirs in Imperial Germany: The Future of Monarchy in Nineteenth-Century Bavaria, Saxony and Württemberg. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017. Pp. 257. In May 1789, the six hundred non-clerical and non-noble members of the Estates-General, after having been forced to wait for two hours, were coldly received by King Louis XVI of France at Versailles. Within a few months, the outbreak of revolution had created an existential threat to the Bourbon monarchy and, in January 1793, Louis himself ascended the scaffold in Paris. Historians have often interpreted these dramatic events as the beginning of Europe's "Age of Revolution." In the following decades, the continent's remaining hereditary rulers were forced onto the defensive, fighting an increasingly desperate rearguard action against the forces of constitutionalism, parliamentarianism, republicanism, and socialism. The collapse of the three great empires of Central and Eastern Europe in the final months of the First World War served as the coda to these largely hopeless efforts to safeguard monarchical privilege in an increasingly democratic age. This narrative [End Page 192] of inevitable decline, according to Frank Lorenz Müller, is misleading: when war broke out in 1914, monarchy had not been pushed irreversibly onto the back foot, but was still widely popular. Exploring the paths to the throne taken by the heirs to three of Germany's smaller kingdoms—Ludwig of Bavaria, Friedrich August of Saxony, and Wilhelm of Württemberg—and shifting his analytical focus to the "monarchical future" of these men, Müller seeks to uncover the reasons for the enduring relevance and surprising resilience of monarchy into the first decades of the twentieth century. After all, "notwithstanding the fact that they would end up as the last of their kind, the three princes predestined to ascend the thrones in Munich, Stuttgart and Dresden one day had every reason to expect that they and their families had a rich future ahead of them" (pp. 6–7). This confidence in the future did not mean that Ludwig, Friedrich August, and Wilhelm could approach their royal duties with complacency. Europe during the "long nineteenth century," a period stretching from the French Revolution to the outbreak of the First World War, witnessed far-reaching economic and social changes that fundamentally altered the relationship between rulers and subjects. The revolutionary concept of popular sovereignty and the gradual appearance of a highly educated and politically ambitious middle class increased the pressure on monarchs across the continent to share their decision-making authority with ministers and parliaments. The political mobilization of the working class as a result of industrialization and urbanization created still another threat to the principle of hereditary rule. No longer confident in the unconditional loyalty of their subjects, Europe's ruling houses therefore embarked on wide-ranging public relations campaigns that exploited new forms of mass communication in order to redefine the function of monarchs in a constantly changing society. Even before they ascended their thrones, the future Ludwig III of Bavaria, Friedrich August III of Saxony, and Wilhelm II of Württemberg played important roles in these transformative efforts. Not only were they expected to demonstrate their competence in the political sphere as members of parliamentary upper houses and uphold the image of the "heroic monarchy" as high-ranking officers in their armies, the three heirs had to portray themselves as guarantors of future political stability, impartial mediators of confessional conflict, and embodiments of prevailing domestic virtues. Failing to live up to public expectations could have serious consequences. It took several years and tireless effort for Friedrich August to rebuild his image as a loving and devoted father after his wife fled to Switzerland to join her Belgian lover in December 1902. As Friedrich August's dedication to overcoming his marital disaster reveals, the heirs to the thrones of Bavaria, Saxony, and Württemberg clearly understood that "princes in glass houses should not throw tantrums" (p. 64). They also had to coexist with one another. While Müller convincingly depicts the three German...

Family, Empire, and Nation: Kurdish Bedirkhanis and the Politics of Origins in a Changing Era

This article traces the evolving significance of a prominent princely Kurdish family’s claim of noble descent from the first half of the nineteenth century through the first half of the twentieth century. The Bedirkhan family, a branch of the wider Azizan family, were hereditary rulers of the Bohtan principality in Ottoman Kurdistan until 1847 and after that a part of the Ottoman imperial power elite. This Kurdish princely family traditionally claimed descent from Khalid ibn al-Walid, the famous Arab Muslim commander of the seventh century. This article scrutinizes the changing meanings of that claim against the backdrop of late Ottoman and post-Ottoman political and ideological developments such as Ottoman modernization and the rise of nationalism. The family’s long-standing references to their so-called progenitor Khalid ibn al-Walid and eventually their attempts to distance themselves from al-Walid in the 1930s and 1940s present an important case that illustrates identity shifts in the modern Middle East. Parallel to the main thesis, this article also demonstrates how the Bedirkhanis interpreted and reinterpreted two premodern texts that mentioned the family’s origins in response to the changing priorities of the time.

English

The emergence of hereditary republican dynasties is part of a regional trend, raising concerns about the decline in democracy, government accountability, nepotism, and grand corruption. Second generation dynasts now rule in Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Gabon, and Togo. Often treated as exceptional aberrations, or theorized under other conceptual tools, this article examines Equatorial Guinea as a case study of ‘dynastic republicanism.’ After a brief theoretical discussion classifying this regime type among other forms of dynastic rule, and after making an historical comparison to Napoléon’s attempt at establishing a hereditary dynasty in the wake of the French First Republic, this article will employ qualitative biographical method to explore the Mongomo clan of Equatorial Guinea in order to show how a kin group can establish itself in absolute power in a modern republic, then corruptly promote what is otherwise anachronistic hereditary rule. The conclusion will enumerate comparative advantages of dynastic style, and make predictions concerning the future of hereditary succession in Equatorial Guinea.   Key words: dynastic republic, Nguema clan, petroleum.

The logic of hereditary rule: theory and evidence

Hereditary leadership has been an important feature of the political landscape throughout history. This paper argues that hereditary leadership is like a relational contract which improves policy incentives. We assemble a unique dataset on leaders between 1874 and 2004 in which we classify them as hereditary leaders based on their family history. The core empirical finding is that economic growth is higher in polities with hereditary leaders but only if executive constraints are weak. Moreover, this holds across of a range of specifications. The finding is also mirrored in policy outcomes which affect growth. In addition, we find that hereditary leadership is more likely to come to an end when the growth performance under the incumbent leader is poor.

The City: A World History by Andrew Lees

Reviewed by: The City: A World History by Andrew Lees Antonio Carbone The City: A World History. By andrew lees. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. 160pp. £12.99 (paper); £47.99 (cloth). “What defines a city?” is a question that has kept busy many generations of urban historians and sociologists. In his book, Andrew Lees conceives the City as a transcultural phenomenon, which existed throughout human history. In his narration, single cities in different regions and epochs illustrate various stages in urban history. Lees fulfills in this book the hard task of summing up in less than two hundred pages almost six millennia of the world’s urban history. The rise of the City is connected with the introduction of agriculture and husbandry, which allowed human settlement and the production of agricultural surplus. Lees identifies Uruk and Babylon in Mesopotamia as the first major cities, which brought together political, religious, and commercial functions and exercised power over vast hinterlands. Athens, Alexandria, and Rome follow as urban champions of Antiquity. Deploying a conventional narrative, Lees declares the fifth century b.c.e. to have been Athens’s “golden age” (p. 15). The torch of “leader of urban life in the Western World” (p. 19) passed then to Alexandria, which was laid out in a grid pattern after Alexander the Great’s instructions. Unlike Alexandria, Rome grew “over a period of many centuries” and “did not reflect the unifying vision of a master planner” (p. 22). Lees characterizes the specific contributions of the Romans in urban history as being founders of many cities in Eurasia and supporters of the idea that “public space was an essential ingredient of a good city” (p. 24). Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages see a decline—so says Lees—of urban civilization in western Europe. He thus seizes the chance to shift focus from Europe to Constantinople, Baghdad, Chang’an, Nanjing, and Tenochtitlán. Whereas Baghdad was beneficiary of its “strategic position along . . . trading routes” (p. 34), China’s main cities, for example, Chang’an and later Nanjing and Dadu (Beijing), were administrative centers. Urban growth in Europe resumed from the eleventh century, especially in Italy and in the “Low Countries.” Echoing orientalist fantasies, which oppose Oriental despotism with Occidental individual freedom, Lees argues that “in contrast to Constantinople, Baghdad, Chang’an and Tenochtitlán, cities in medieval Europe were not founded by hereditary rulers as capitals of large states. They instead arose gradually, as a result of decisions by individuals who chose to live there” (p. 41). Early modern Europe is described as being the golden age of capital cities such as Paris and London and of planners who were “seeking to overcome the disorderliness that characterized medieval cities” (p. 46). The high [End Page 175] pace of urbanization in northwestern Europe, which stemmed from the shift in trading toward the Atlantic, was accompanied by the foundation of “numerous colonial cities, which fostered economic links that contributed to urban growth around the world” (p. 50). After lingering on the case of Edo (Tokyo), which from the eighteenth century rose as military center of the shogunate system, Lees concentrates on urbanization in Europe, the United States, and Japan in the long nineteenth century. He identifies industrialization as one of the main motors for urban population growth. Rising numbers of urban inhabitants “led to intensified overcrowding, whereby more and more city dwellers lived in what came to be known . . . as slums” (p. 67). This caused a worsening of hygienic conditions and epidemics. Urban reformism emerged as a reaction to this crisis, at first as a philanthropic movement and later anchored in “public institutions that operated under the authority of either national or, to a greater extent, municipal governments” (p. 72). Cities outside of Europe, the United States, or Japan in the long nineteenth century fall in the book under the category of colonial cities. The author differentiates between two main typologies of colonial cities. He draws the main distinction between regions where cities already existed and in which, “when Westerners arrived, the newcomers had to adapt to local customs, narrow, twisting streets and high residential densities” (p. 83) and areas where new cities were founded and...

Preparing for North Korea's Collapse: Key Stabilization Tasks

ABSTRACT: North Korea's hereditary rulers have been under a watch for decades, with many pundits regularly predicting the demise of the Family Recent scenarios are predicated on the sudden death of Kim Jong-un, the 32-year-old Supreme Leader, and an ensuing succession struggle ranging from an internal-faction winner-takes-all fight to a more chaotic transition where factions clash with assistance from outside powers. Offering China a ballistic missile defense ban on the peninsula might persuade the Chinese to acquiesce to eventual Korean unification and denuclearization. ********** North Korea's hereditary rulers have been under a watch for almost 30 years, with pundits regularly predicting the demise of the Kim Family Regime. At present, Kim Jong-un, the 32-year-old Supreme Leader (so far without an heir apparent) appears to be effectively consolidating his power through a combination of brutal acts, tentative economic reforms, and beneficent giveaways. He executed his uncle, National Defense Commission Vice Chairman Jang Sungtaek, and 70 other senior officials and generals since assuming power in December 2011. (1) Concomitantly, Kim opened glitzy amusement parks (including a water park, a dolphinarium, and a ski resort) for use by the rising, increasingly affluent entrepreneurial class mainly located in Pyonghattan and other privileged enclaves of Pyongyang. These emerging Donju (masters of money) are relatively well-off, a result of leveraging government ties, Chinese connections, and tacit market-based reforms introduced over the last 15 years that permit them to earn private incomes primarily in trade and agriculture. (2) Internal Collapse Despite Kim's carefully calibrated moves to cement his rule, the of his regime remains possible, plausible, and predictable due to its reliance on a single point of potential failure, namely, the Kim bloodline. Without another male Kim in the wings, Kim's sudden assassination or death is likely to precipitate a succession struggle ranging from an internal-faction winner-takes-all fight to a more chaotic, uncertain transition where factions clash over time with help from major outside powers. North Korea's remains a question of if, not when, chiefly because Kim seems to be in good health despite a persistent weight problem. In addition, roughly one-third of North Koreans appear to be bolstering his regime, mainly in return for food security and other privileges. One-tenth of North Koreans have officially registered cell phones, and another tenth may have unregistered ones. (3) The rest of society constitutes a silent, hard-to-assess majority, increasingly exposed to foreign criticism of its leader, but voicing no opposition as a result of their isolation, deprivation, powerlessness, or imprisonment. The imprisonment of dissidents applies not only to offenders, but often to their extended families--with up to 120,000 currently interned in hard-labor camps. (4) On balance, the Kim Family Regime appears to be ruthless in protecting its survival as the most prominent authoritarian dynasty in the world, except for Cuba's single-generation Castro leadership. Recent scenarios conjure two potentially interrelated events: first, the sudden death or assassination of Kim Jong-un, and second, the emergence of alternative power centers within the secretive Kim Family clan itself and among key security organizations. These power elites, failing to accommodate each other in North Korea's highly authoritarian system, could clash and break up the brittle, centralized regime. Given this worst-case scenario, the internal collapse school anticipates a new territorial partition if groups align strongly along diverging Chinese and South Korean/Western interests. (5) The formal demarcation between North and South Korea might then be redrawn north of the Demilitarized Zone, where it has existed since 1953. …

Precolonial institutions and deforestation in Africa

We find that local institutions inherited from the precolonial era continue to play an important role in natural resource governance in Africa. Using satellite image data, we find a significant and robust relationship between deforestation and precolonial succession rules of local leaders (local chiefs). In particular, we find that those precolonial areas where local leaders were appointed by ‘social standing’ have higher rates of deforestation compared to the base case of hereditary rule and where local leaders were appointed from above (by paramount chiefs). While the transmission mechanisms behind these results are complex, we suggest that areas where local leaders were appointed by social standing are more likely to have poorer institutions governing local leadership and forest management.

Mistaken Identities?: Alessandro de’ Medici and the Question of “Race”

Alessandro de’ Medici’s life and its representation reveal important beliefs about family, politics, and genealogy during the Italian Renaissance. Duke Alessandro’s government marked the end of the Florentine Republic and the beginning of hereditary rule. Many scholars interpret Alessandro’s assassination as a fitting end to the tyrannical usurpation of Florentine liberty. This moral and political interpretation, championed by supporters of Italian unification and cherished by writers from the Romantic period until this day, has dominated assessments of Alessandro’s life and rule. The fact that he was illegitimate has given rise to many accounts of his origins and to the related controversies over the possibility that his mother was a peasant or a slave. The slave controversy admits a further question: was his mother’s background North African? Or Southern (i.e., sub-Saharan) African? Such arguments assume that slaves are black and that blacks are a clearly defined group. The history of Alessandro de’ Medici is inseparable from claims made for liberal society against tyranny, from evolving concepts of race, and from ideas of European cultural superiority over Africa. This essay studies images, both written and visual, of Alessandro de’ Medici with a focus on race and on the changing significance of traits now associated with ideologies of ethnicity and nationhood.

El Temor a Las Multitudes: La Formación Del Proyecto Conservador En México, 1808–1834

El Temor a Las Multitudes: La Formación Del Proyecto Conservador En México, 1808–1834