Bison Herds Research Articles

Ancient mitochondrial DNA extraction from Bison bison long bones from Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, UNESCO World Heritage site

Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump (HSIBJ) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located on the southern end of the Porcupine Hills, near Fort Macleod, Alberta, Canada. Using a system of drive lanes, Indigenous groups drove herds of bison over the cliff edge for thousands of years. The well-stratified deposits at the base of the cliff offer a unique opportunity to investigate the genetic diversity of the American bison before European contact and their genetic bottleneck in the 19th century. We extracted ancient DNA from twenty-one bison long bones, amplified and sequenced the mitochondrial DNA control region. Comparisons between ancient and modern bison populations revealed novel haplotypes in the HSIBJ population, suggesting a loss of genetic diversity due to the bottleneck. Furthermore, we discovered a shared haplotype between the bison hunted at the site and modern populations, which may help elucidate the complex history of living herds.

Trade-Offs Between Forage Availability, Accessibility, and Predation Risk on Winter Foraging Strategies of Wood Bison (Bison bison athabascae).

Optimal foraging theory (OFT) and the energy maximization hypothesis (EMH) have long been essential when examining wildlife habitat selection. At high latitudes and altitudes, animals in winter face greater limitations in availability and accessibility of forage. Here we explore the foraging behavior of wood bison (Bison bison athabascae) during winter within the Ronald Lake bison herd in northeastern Alberta, Canada, and examine the trade-offs they face due to limitations in forage abundance and availability (snow conditions), as well as the need to minimize predation risk. We used Global Positioning System (GPS) location data collected from 70 female wood bison to identify winter foraging sites and craters selected by bison to access forage beneath the snow. Within wetlands used by bison we selected 190 pairs of used (foraged) and random (available) sites to test eight a priori hypotheses explaining how bison traded-off between forage availability, accessibility, and minimizing predation risk. We found with matched-paired logistic regression that Carex atherodes was 1.21-times more likely to be selected per unit increase in ground cover, compared to 1.17-times per unit ground cover for C. aquatilis and C. utriculata. However, all Carex species showed an increase in selection when cover was > 50% cover within individual craters. While the importance of Carex was clear, forage site selection was still inversely related to snow depth. There is also a neutralizing combined effect of snow depth and Carex species ground cover which suggests that bison maximized their energy return by avoiding areas with deep snow (> 30 cm) that demanded intensive cratering, even when highly selected forage was accessible beneath. Avoidance of forage areas with deep snow demonstrates that wood bison employed a foraging strategy that considers both forage availability and environmental conditions, with snow depth being a limiting factor. We highlight the relationship between optimal foraging based on food availability and the trade-offs within an energy restrictive winter season, furthering the understanding of how large herbivores forage strategically to maximize energy intake in northern environments.

WITHDRAWN: First report of Toxocara vitulorum infection in a dairy calf in Tennessee

The ascarid nematode, Toxocara vitulorum is a destructive parasite of ruminants with a world-wide distribution that causes mortality in calves, especially those with poor nutrition. Reports of Toxocara vitulorum are scarce in the continental United States and Canada. A single gravid female T. vitulorum was discovered on the necropsy of a 2.5-month-old mini jersey calf from a dairy farm in Sparta, TN. Genetic analysis of the 18S and COI genes revealed a 100 % match to T. vitulorum samples isolated from beef calves in Iowa and a 96.73 % match to T. vitulorum isolated from a yak in Austria, respectively. Although perforation of the small intestine was seen in the calf and is the typical cause of death in calves with high burdens of this worm, it is unknown if this single nematode infection contributed to the cause of death in this case. The source of the infection in this calf also remains unknown. Fecal centrifugal flotations on the rest of the herd (n = 8) did not produce any T. vitulorum eggs, even in the 2 calves that were under 6 months old on the farm. We were unable to obtain milk to test for T. vitulorum larvae from the calf's mother. This is the first report of T. vitulorum in dairy calves in the US and the first report of this parasite in Tennessee. Given the devastation caused by this parasite in cattle and bison herds in other countries, further studies to determine the prevalence and pathogenicity of this parasite in the US are vital to prevent spread of this parasite to other vulnerable species and to prevent economic losses in the animal industry.

Evaluating Two Sampling Methods for Mycoplasma Bovis Diagnosis in American Bison (Bison bison).

Mycoplasma bovis is a bacterial pathogen endemic to cattle. In the early 2000s, M. bovis emerged as a cause of respiratory disease in American bison (Bison bison), causing significant morbidity and mortality. Bison herds that experience an outbreak of M. bovis are at higher risk for subsequent outbreaks, suggesting that chronic, subclinical infections can be established. Antemortem testing is therefore crucial to disease management; however, the precise sampling method to maximize detection of M. bovis in bison is unknown. We evaluated two sample types-superficial nasal swabs and deep nasopharyngeal swabs-collected from apparently healthy or symptomatic bison from January 2021 through December 2022. We used real-time PCR to detect M. bovis in 76/938 bison (8.1%) from 11 herds. For bison testing positive on at least one swab type, M. bovis was detected in 63/76 (82.8%) deep nasopharyngeal swabs and 29/73 (38.1%) superficial nasal swabs. Agreement between swabs for positive bison was 21% (n=16, kappa coefficient 0.319). We conclude that deep nasopharyngeal swabbing is more sensitive than superficial nasal swabbing for detection of M. bovis in bison and that low agreement between methods may be related to stage of infection. We further tested pooled samples by PCR and found that pooling of up to five samples can be effective to increase throughput and minimize costs. Management of wild bison relies on the ability to relocate animals to maintain gene flow and healthy populations. Sensitive and specific diagnostic tests are needed to inform decisions and minimize risk of transmission, especially from subclinical carriers. This study provides valuable insight that will inform best practices for M. bovis testing, thereby supporting the conservation of bison as healthy wildlife, which in turn promotes ecological restoration, safeguards cultural practices of Tribal Nations, and upholds the bison as a unique American icon.

Experiments with a Dark Pedagogy: Learning from/through Temporality, Climate Change and Species Extinction (…and Ghosts)

Abstract In this article, we experiment with a form of dark pedagogy, a pedagogy that confronts haunting pasts∼presents∼futures in environmental education. We offer a conceptualisation of ghosts that enables us to creatively explore the duration of things and consider the relationality of time. We examine this through two situated contexts, engaging with entangled, yet differentiated, socioecological issues. The first issue involves the cascading impacts of climate change on the Australian Alps, including intensifying bushfires and threats to the iconic snow gum. The second issue involves the reordering of human/animal relations through processes of settler colonialism that continue to transform land into a commodity, with a significant cultural and material consequence of such colonial harm resulting in the extermination of free-ranging bison herds in the Canadian prairies. Both are unique issues, but both involve impacts of colonisation, loss and natural-cultural hegemony. The dark elements of these Place-specific stories involve noticing and confronting loss and related injustices. In our case, we diffract such confrontations by thinking through these challenging issues and working towards ethical ways of living and learning. In this article, we (re)member ghosts and ponder practices for fostering anticolonial response-abilities and affirmative human/Earth futures.

An epidemiological investigation into Mycoplasma bovis infection in U.S. bison (Bison bison): A case-control survey

Mycoplasma bovis (M. bovis) is an emerging pathogen in North American Bison (Bison bison) characterized by significant mor­bidity and mortality. Herds are reported to experience case fa­tality rates from 10 to 45%, with mature animals being primar­ily affected. To date, there are no published reports regarding the epidemiology of M. bovis within U.S. bison herds; this study serves as the first in-depth analysis of the prevalence, clinical signs and potential risk factors for M. bovis-associated disease in the United States.

Molecular Identification of Selected Cervid Helminths in Supplementarily Fed European Bison Population

Background: Wild animals often suffer from infections with multiple species of parasites simultaneously. The exchange of parasites between different host species is common in nature and often involves intermediate hosts or sharing space such as pastures or watering holes. Supplementary feeding, leading to large aggregations of individuals, can have several adverse effects on wild ungulate populations, despite being a widespread management practice. One such effect is an increased risk of parasitic infections, particularly in social animals. We quantified the prevalence of selected helminths typically found in cervids, in samples of the European bison faeces, using molecular methods, and compared endoparasite species richness between supplementarily fed and nonfed European bison herds in the Białowieża Primeval Forest, NE Poland.Methods: Using the diagnostic PCR method, we analysed the faecal samples for molecular markers of nine parasite species which are typically found in cervids: moose, red deer, and roe deer.Results: All analysed samples tested positive for at least one parasite species, and the average number of parasite species per sample was 3.2. The most prevalent parasites were gastrointestinal nematodes: Ostertagia leptospicularis and Ostertagia antipini, found in 89.2% and 50.6% of the European bison faecal samples, respectively. We found significant differences in the prevalence of four parasite species between supplementarily fed and nonfed European bison herds. Co‐occurrence analysis showed that most of the associations between parasite species pairs were random.Conclusion: Management practices, such as supplementary feeding, can influence the spread of parasite infections in social mammals. This study also promotes the application of molecular methods for noninvasive parasitological monitoring of wildlife populations of endangered ruminant species sharing resources with other ungulates.

Reintroducing bison to Banff National Park – an ecocultural case study

The reintroduction of extirpated species is a frequent tactic in rewilding projects because of the functional role species play in maintaining ecosystem health. Despite their potential to benefit both ecosystems and society, however, most well-known species reintroductions have adopted an eco-centric, “nature-in-people-out” approach. Rewilding theory and practitioners acknowledge that ignoring the role Indigenous people did and might once again play in shaping the distribution, abundance, movements, behavior, and health of wild species and ecosystems, is limiting. In this case study, we describe the technical steps we took and how Indigenous knowledge, ceremony, and cultural monitoring were woven into the recent reintroduction of plains bison to Canada’s Banff National Park. Six years later, the reintroduced bison herd has grown from 16 to >100 animals, ranges mostly within 30 km of the release site, and, if current growth continues, will likely be managed with Indigenous harvesting. Transboundary bison policy differences are shifting and may lead to bison being more sustainable. The ecocultural approach, therefore, has increased the resilience of our rewilding project.

Intermittent Prairie Streams in the Northern Great Plains: A Case of an Undervalued Ecosystem

Small (<15 m wide), intermittent prairie streams in western South Dakota, a semiarid part of the northern United States, are undervalued ecosystems because they do not exemplify the values of classic, flowing streams. However, they are valuable as wildlife corridors, aquatic habitat for drought-adapted species, and support of local grazing economies. We surveyed 90 streams in 2018–2019, collecting data on geomorphic, water chemistry, and biological properties, focusing on vegetation and grazing impacts. We developed an approach for categorizing streams by landscape position and flow regime to facilitate appropriate land management and stream restoration actions. The result was a published landowner guide to provide information on low-tech riparian management and restoration options of the four stream types we categorized. The headwaters streams and woody draws with drainage areas <26 km2 are the most abundant types and exemplify the issues described above. Large rivers, despite drainage areas exceeding 260 km2 can go dry. Management issues include invasive plant species, lack of woody riparian establishment, poor water quality, overgrazing, channel incision, and water stress from climate change. The most cost-effective management practices involve rotational grazing and practices that reduce cattle impacts. More recently, beaver dam analogs have been installed and beaver reintroduction is being considered along with reestablishment of native bison herds in place of cattle. Intermittent prairie streams present an excellent case study of an undervalued ecosystem, illustrating the challenges and opportunities of such systems. Engagement of grazing landowners can improve stewardship of these systems.

March or get infected: Influence of winter ranging shaped by supplementary feeding on the spread of non-native nematode Ashworthius sidemi in European bison populations

Parasitic infections in wildlife are influenced by numerous factors, including those related to wildlife management. This includes sup plementary feeding widespread in numerous ungulates, including European bison. In this paper we analysed the influence of sup plementary feeding and winter ranging of European bison herds on the dynamics, prevalence and infection severity of the blood-sucking nematode Ashworthius sidemi in two areas in NE Poland: the Knyszyn Forest (KF) and the Białowieża Primeval Forest (BPF) with diversified management strategies. We found significant differences in A. sidemi abundance and intensity between European bison groups; sup plementary fed European bison from the BPF had higher parasitic load (3020 parasites, on average), than non-fed individuals from the KF (1400) and from the BPF (770). The prevalence was relatively high in all groups (93–96 %). In the KF the highest infection rate was observed 9 years after the first appearance of A. sidemi, with a maximum value of 8,620 nematodes; while in the BPF, after just 6 years with maximal load up to 44,310 A. sidemi. The most plausible mechanism behind the observed pattern is probably the winter ranging behaviour of differently managed herds. We found that increasing winter home range size of European bison was associated with a significant reduction in the A. sidemi abundance. Our study shows that different management strategies may have an impact on animal spatial behaviour and associated spread and dynamics of pathogens in mammalian populations, and stresses the importance of adaptive management in reducing threats to wildlife.

Review: Reproductive physiology of bison and application of assisted reproductive technologies to their conservation.

Bison are an ecologically and culturally important species on the European and North American continents. Their near extirpation was met with conservation efforts that prevented their extinction but left few animals or highly fragmented populations. Contemporary conservation efforts are focused on building ecologically and genetically sustainable bison herds for long-term conservation of the species. Assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) can play a key role in building these herds by facilitating the movement of genetics in the form of gametes and embryos, while protecting animal well-being and ensuring biosecurity of existing bison herds. In addition, ARTs such as gamete and embryo cryopreservation can be used to protect against future losses of genetic diversity through biobanking. In this review, a brief summary of basic bison reproductive physiology is presented followed by an overview of the current state of ART in Bison bison (American bison) and Bison bonasus (European bison or wisent). Research on ART ranging from artificial insemination to in vitro embryo transfer and cloning is discussed with particular regard to the application of ART for conservation purposes. While significant progress has been made in ART for bison, there are still many opportunities to improve these technologies and expand their impact for bison conservation.

Effect of microbiome on zinc and copper absorption in the gastrointestinal tracts of the American Bison herds on the Fort Peck Indian Reservation

On the Fort Peck Reservation bison are separated into two pastures: a genetically pure bison herd (cultural herd) and a non-genetically pure bison herd with cattle genes (business herd). Vital nutrients such as zinc and copper may be lacking in their diet and those nutrients may not be absorbed in sufficient amounts. Ussing chamber studies using stomach tissue measure the absorption of these nutrients. Trace metals of copper and zinc are stored in the liver and measurements of those levels determined deficiencies in the animals. In addition, in ruminants such as the bison, the microbiota play a critical role in nutrient digestion and energy availability to the host. To characterize the bison gastrointestinal microbiome composition, we collected gastrointestinal samples from different stomach compartments from bison in cultural and business herds. Trace metal analysis using atomic absorption spectroscopy was also performed for liver samples collected from the two herds. Spectroscopic analysis revealed essential trace metals to be deficient between the two herds and to be similar between genders. Copper levels were substantially lower in both herds (7.8± 0.5 ppm for the cultural herd and 6.7±0.8 for the business herd, where normal levels are 87.5±16). Zinc values were also substantially lower at 30.57±0.5 for the cultural herd and 25± 2.6 for the business herd, where normal levels are 112.5± 12. Ussing Chamber experiments performed on reticulum and rumen tissues collected from both cultural and business herds identified significant absorption of Isc of zinc (250±35 mAmp) and Isc of copper (278±39 mAmp). The second stomach had similar values (223±30 mAmp) Isc of copper (258 uAmp ±29 for zinc). Bacterial community analysis using 16S rDNA sequencing identified significant microbial population changes across the gastrointestinal tract of bison. The reticulum, rumen and omasum displayed similar microbial community compositions. The aomasum was different from the 3 rumen compartments and the proximal intestine and colon samples. The proximal colon microbial community composition was unique and was different from all rumen and colon samples. The distal and proximal colon samples were similar to each other but, were significantly different from all other samples. Although gut location was the largest driver of microbial community differences, microbial community differences were also identified based on herd and gender. Current analysis shows that animals that are deficient in copper or zinc or on different pastures with different diets the differences in the microbiota may be insignificant. In conclusion, the bison are somewhat deficient in Cu and Zn but have a great capacity to absorb these trace metals. The lack of these trace metals therefore comes from a lack of these metals in their diet and may affect microbial function and nutrient digestion leading to less energy available to the host. United States Department of Agriculture Grant This is the full abstract presented at the American Physiology Summit 2023 meeting and is only available in HTML format. There are no additional versions or additional content available for this abstract. Physiology was not involved in the peer review process.

Learn the Past and Present to Teach the Future—Role of Active Surveillance of Exposure to Endemic and Emerging Viruses in the Approach of European Bison Health Protection

As the population size of free-living European bison in Poland has increased significantly over the last few years, conservation and management should be reconsidered to face new challenges, which aim to protect the whole population, not just individuals. The aim of our study was to analyse prevalence and identify risk factors for infections with viruses affecting reproduction (BVDV, BoHV-1, and BoHV-4), causing respiratory diseases (BRV3, BAdV-3, and BRSV), and emerging vector-borne viruses (BTV and SBV). Over 600 serum samples used in serology and 270 lung tissue samples, and 284 nasal swabs used in virological tests were collected from 24 free-living and captive European bison herds between 2016 and 2023. The seroprevalences varied between low (0.3–6.1% for BVDV, BoHV-1, and BoHV-4), medium (15.9% for BRSV and 22.1% for BTV) and high (43.3% for BRV3, 59.5% for BAdV-3, and 69.5% for SBV). Interspecies’ and intraspecies’ risk of endemic viral infections was observed to be density-dependent, while the effect of anthropogenic factors on the spread of infections in free-living European bison has not been demonstrated. BTV is no longer circulating, while SBV has become endemic. The higher exposure to viruses in the European bison eliminated on the basis of a veterinary decision indicates the importance of an expert supervision for disease control and prevention.

Bayesian latent-class modelling of quarantine testing procedures for American Bison (Bison bison) in the Greater Yellowstone Area to determine Brucella abortus freedom.

American bison (Bison bison) quarantine protocols were established to prevent transmission of brucellosis outside the Greater Yellowstone Area, while allowing for distribution of wild bison for conservation and cultural purposes. Quarantine standards require rigorous testing over 900 days which has led to the release of over 200 bison to Native American tribes. Standards were evaluated using 15 years of laboratory and management data to minimize the burden of testing and increase the number of brucellosis-free bison available for distribution. All bison (n = 578) from Yellowstone National Park were corralled by the National Park Service and United States Department of Agriculture. A statistical and management evaluation of the bison quarantine program was performed. Bayesian latent-class modeling was used to predict the probability of nondetection of a seroreactor at various time points, as well as the probability of seroconversion by days in quarantine. At 300 days, 1 in 1,000 infected bison (0.0014 probability) would not be detected but could potentially seroconvert; the seroconversion model predicted 99.9% would seroconvert by day 294, and 12.8% of bison enrolled in quarantine would seroconvert over time. Using a 300-day quarantine period, it would take 30 years to potentially miss 1 seroreactor out of over 8,000 bison enrolled in the quarantine program. Reducing the quarantine program requirements from over 900 days to 300 days would allow management of quarantined bison in coordination with seasonal movement of bison herds and triple the number of brucellosis-free bison available for distribution.

When Theory Meets Practice: Balancing Genetic Diversity and Behaviour When Choosing Founders for a Recently Reintroduced Bison (Bison bison) Herd in Banff National Park, Canada

The tragic decline of plains bison (Bison bison bison) in North America is well known. By the turn of the 20th century, plains bison, once numbering in the tens of millions, were extirpated from the wild in Canada. Banff National Park, AB, Canada, is within the original range of bison in North America, and still contains suitable habitat for the species. In 2017, we used measures of genetic diversity, as well as age and reproductive status, to select 16 plains bison for reintroduction to an unoccupied corner of their former historic range in Banff National Park. However, five of the preferred founders from this genetically diverse group needed to be substituted for less ideal candidates when aggressive behavior was observed, which could have compromised animal welfare during translocation. The level of genetic diversity in the founding population was therefore lower than if all proposed founders had been used, although the difference was not substantial. As expected, adults in this small, reintroduced herd had lower observed heterozygosity and number of alleles than the larger source herd, but expected heterozygosity was higher, likely a result of preferentially choosing individuals with rare alleles. Another substantial contribution to genetic diversity was in unborn fetuses: sired by males that were not translocated, the calves born a few months later provided a boost to the genetic diversity of this small founder herd. Where opportunities allow, the inclusion of pregnant females can significantly increase the genetic diversity of small founder populations. When compared to other founded herds of bison, the techniques described here have ensured that the newly established Banff NP herd is one of the most diverse bison herds in Canada, despite its relatively small number of founders.

Combating tuberculosis in European bison in the Bieszczady Mountains - administrative aspect

Tuberculosis in animals is an infectious and contagious disease, caused by acid-fast bacilli of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. The disease has been confirmed in Poland in farm and wild animals. Among the latter the largest number of cases was diagnosed in free-ranging European bison in the Bieszczady Mountains. The disease has also been present there since 2013 in the wild boar population. From April 21, 2021, in accordance with EU Regulation 2016/429, tuberculosis in European bison is a disease that is subject to mandatory eradication in all EU Member States. In Poland and in most EU countries where free-ranging European bison herds exist, no strategy has yet been developed to combat tuberculosis outbreaks in this species. To date, in Podkarpackie Voivodship eradication measures of bison tuberculosis have been undertaken in a framework of interdisciplinary cooperation of employees of the State Forests and the Veterinary Inspection, supported by representatives of the sciences. The article presents the legal status and the administrative aspects of the issue, as well as experiences and practical solutions of tuberculosis eradication in free-living European bison herds which have proven themselves in field conditions. The conclusions regarding an eradication strategy and the needs of tuberculosis monitoring are also presented in this article, which, apart from wild bison herds, takes into account other wild animal species and farm cattle from areas and buffer zones of bison herds infected with tuberculosis.

A reimagined One Health framework for wildlife conservation

Abstract The One Health discourse is dominated by the role of animal health as a determinant of human health. This discourse often disregards the intrinsic and ecological value of healthy animals and is thus an inadequate framing for wildlife conservation. Our paper reimagines One Health for conservation purposes based on five premises: (i) health is cumulative; (ii) there are multiple species with different health needs and goals in the same setting; (iii) One Health emphasizes “bundled” relationships unique to a setting, rather than independent and intersecting spheres of health; and One Health should be (iv) equity informed and (v) have a shared goal that can be achieved through intersectoral actions. The reimagined framework is centered on the guiding principle that all actions should ensure no species or generation is prevented from reaching good health by the actions to protect other species or generations. Grounded in the positive outcome of health equity, the framework uses three prompts to guide One Health planning – populations, places and goals. The paper discusses how the framework can be applied for research concerning wood bison herds under imminent threat in Canada.

Bison movements change with weather: Implications for their continued conservation in the Anthropocene.

Animal movement patterns are affected by complex interactions between biotic and abiotic landscape conditions, and these patterns are being altered by weather variability associated with a changing climate. Some animals, like the American plains bison (Bison bison L.; hereafter, plains bison), are considered keystone species, thus their response to weather variability may alter ecosystem structure and biodiversity patterns. Many movement studies of plains bison and other ungulates have focused on point-pattern analyses (e.g., resource-selection) that have provided information about where these animals move, but information about when or why these animals move is limited. For example, information surrounding the influence of weather on plains bison movement in response to weather is limited but has important implications for their conservation in a changing climate. To explore how movement distance is affected by weather patterns and drought, we utilized 12-min GPS data from two of the largest plains bison herds in North America to model their response to weather and drought parameters using generalized additive mixed models. Distance moved was best predicted by air temperature, wind speed, and rainfall. However, air temperature best explained the variation in distance moved compared to any other single parameter we measured, predicting a 48% decrease in movement rates above 28°C. Moreover, severe drought (as indicated by 25-cm depth soil moisture) better predicted movement distance than moderate drought. The strong influence of weather and drought on plains bison movements observed in our study suggest that shifting climate and weather will likely affect plains bison movement patterns, further complicating conservation efforts for this wide-ranging keystone species. Moreover, changes in plains bison movement patterns may have cascading effects for grassland ecosystem structure, function, and biodiversity. Plains bison and grassland conservation efforts need to be proactive and adaptive when considering the implications of a changing climate on bison movement patterns.

European Union needs urgent strategy for the European bison

The status of the European bison in the nearest future is extremely uncertain in result of Russia's aggression against Ukraine. Currently, over half of the whole European bison population (50.4%), and almost two-thirds of free ranging population (61.8%) is located in countries directly and indirectly involved in this military conflict, that is, Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus (Raczyński, 2022). Recent reports indicate a likely major economic crisis in Belarus and Russia caused by economic sanctions (Harrison, 2022; Kłysiński, 2022), and in Ukraine due to infrastructure and economy destruction (Washington Post, 2022). The magnitude of the economic crisis is difficult to estimate however, due to the ongoing conflict, which will probably continue at least until the end of the year. As shown by the experience from previous years, the economic crisis may significantly affect the development of the European bison population. Such a decline was recorded in the 1990s after the collapse of the USSR, when the population declined almost 17% between 1991 and 1998 (Pucek, 2004). This decline mainly occurred in the former USSR countries in result of poaching and general lack of governmental control (Pucek, 2004; Olech and Perzanowski, 2022). Currently, there are 2,758 free ranging European bison in the European Union (EU), 80.6% of which are located in Poland (2223 ind.); however, only in Lithuania and Romania, there are more than 100 animals in free ranging populations (256 and 181 ind., respectively). In other countries, such as Latvia, Germany, Slovakia, and Bulgaria, European free ranging populations of this species are sparse (98 ind. in total) (Raczyński, 2022). The future of the European bison population in Poland is also uncertain due to threats of diseases, for example, telaziosis, which may cause a significant decrease in the population numbers in Bieszczady (Demiaszkiewicz et al., 2020), the largest population of Lowland-Caucasian line in Europe. In addition, some of populations are overcrowded, which increases the risk of disease transmission and exposes the European bison to other threats like intensified migration toward agriculture and build up areas. Similar problems are observed in Lithuania. Isolation of European bison populations in Russia creates a risk of future improper management decisions, considering facts of already performed: introduction of hybrids with American bison to Caucasus and establishment of free ranging herd of Bison bonasus athabascae in Siberia (Sipko et al., 2010; WWF, 2017). Considering the above, there is a high risk of a decline of the European bison population and the loss of its current status, which would be a waste of 20 years of intensive conservation measures. For this reason, we call for immediate action to develop a strategy for the European bison conservation at the EU level. The strategy should include a plan for the resettlement of animals among EU member states to form new free-roaming or semifree populations. Currently, five populations in Poland (Białowieska, Knyszyńska and Borecka Forests, Bieszczady, and Zachodniopomorskie) and one in Lithuania (form Panevėžys and Kdainiai districts) can play a role as a source population. Potentially also the semifree and captive populations in western Europe could enrich the newly established herds. The strategy should also include legislative simplification of rules for the European bison transportation and the unification of the legal status of this species in the member states. In addition, stable, structural financial support should be planned to minimize the conflict with the local communities through environmental subsidies. Such protection is the only effective way to ensure the further development of this species population in Europe and to allow minimizing threats coming from the current military conflict and its subsequent economic consequences. We believe that failure to act now, when the population in Poland is still large enough to be further a source for new restitution projects, may squander about 100 years of joint efforts of European countries to rescue the species from the brink of extinction and so far, achieved spectacular results of its restitution. The loss of that species, being such emblematic for nature conservation, would be an inexcusable error. Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Bison Herds and Indian Corn: Interspecies Matriarchs and Revitalised Foodways in the Fort Peck Reservation

AbstractFor Turtle Island's Buffalo Nations – those sharing a common food system with bison at the centre – herds are a food source, as well as relatives and pillars of cultural continuity. Bison give life while exemplifying it to their tribal relatives who learned from the herds’ matriarchal organisation. Other matriarchs, including regional seeds, offer their own cultural teachings to help balance buffalo foodways. Colonial annihilation of these interspecies relatives was an attack on Indigenous People's relationships and lifeways. Re‐centring these knowledge systems and ways of being is a priority in asserting tribal sovereignty and revitalising foodways. To do so, two initiatives in the Fort Peck Reservation are using contemporary tools, interlaced with cultural knowledge to increase access to Indigenous foods. First at the Fort Peck Bison Ranch where community members organise a hunt and oversee animal transfers to other communities re‐establishing their own cultural herds. Further, Woicago Tipi, a Fort Peck gardening project, is working to rematriate Indigenous seed varieties so that they may continue to adapt to the regional climate and rebalance Buffalo Nation food systems.