Deer Herds Research Articles

One Health collaboration is more effective than single-sector actions at mitigating SARS-CoV-2 in deer

One Health aims to achieve optimal health outcomes for people, animals, plants, and shared environments. We describe a multisector effort to understand and mitigate SARS-CoV-2 transmission risk to humans via the spread among and between captive and wild white-tailed deer. We first framed a One Health problem with three governance sectors that manage captive deer, wild deer populations, and public health. The problem framing included identifying fundamental objectives, causal chains for transmission, and management actions. We then developed a dynamic model that linked deer herds and simulated SARS-CoV-2. Next, we evaluated management alternatives for their ability to reduce SARS-CoV-2 spread in white-tailed deer. We found that single-sector alternatives reduced transmission, but that the best-performing alternative required collaborative actions among wildlife management, agricultural management, and public health agencies. Here, we show quantitative support that One Health actions outperform single-sector responses, but may depend on coordination to track changes in this evolving system.

Laparoscopic artificial insemination of white-tailed deer with fresh sex-sorted semen

This case study describes the feasibility of using chilled, sex-sorted semen for laparoscopic artificial insemination (AI) in the captive white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) industry. Ejaculates from 3 bucks were collected, extended, and shipped overnight for flow cytometric sex-sorting. Sex-sorted semen was chilled and shipped back overnight. Synchronized does were bred using chilled, sex-sorted (n = 30, farm 1; n = 10, farm 2) or conventional frozen (n = 7, farm 2) semen by laparoscopic AI. Does were subsequently turned out with bucks. Percentage of bucks born via AI with sex-sorted semen was 85% (28/33) for farm 1 and 100% (16/16) for farm 2. Percentage of bucks born by natural cover was 50% (12/24) for farm 1 and percentage of bucks born by using either conventional semen or live cover was 56% (9/14) for farm 2. This case study demonstrated acceptable results using chilled, sex-sorted semen in white-tailed deer herds as a technique to manipulate the sex proportions per breeding season.

Seven-year prospective study on yearly incidence of Orbivirus infection of captive white-tailed deer and potential Culicoides vectors.

Bluetongue virus (BTV) and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) are arthropod-borne viruses that are transmitted by biting midges in the genus Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) and can cause hemorrhagic disease in certain ruminants. The objectives of this study were to measure the incidence of BTV and EHDV infections in captive white-tailed deer herd as well as tissues and corresponding presence of Culicoides midges at a location near Clinton, LA. During a 7-yr study with yearly outbreaks of hemorrhagic disease in the deer herd, 15 species of Culicoides were captured using Centers for Disease Control (CDC) black light traps. Reverse transcriptase quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to screen for BTV and EHDV in pools of midges and tissues of deer. From 2012 to 2018, 1,711 pools of midges representing 24,859 specimens were tested, and specimens from 5 of the 15 collected species (Culicoides debilipalpis, Culicoides stellifer, Culicoides venustus, Culicoides haematopotus, and Culicoides crepuscularis) were found to be PCR positive for BTV and EHDV. Most of the BTV-positive pools of biting midges were from specimens of C. debilipalpis and C. stellifer, and most of the EHDV-positive pools were from specimens of C. venustus and C. stellifer. During the 7-yr period, 112 white-tailed deer that died at the study location were PCR positive for BTV or EHDV: detected BTV serotypes were 10 and 12 and EHDV serotypes were 1, 2, and 6. There was a significant increase in BTV/EHDV antibody prevalence in white-tailed deer during the study; antibody-positive rates increased from 15% to 78% in the deer herd of approximately 100 animals.

Impact of topographic factors on animal field pathings: Analysis and prediction of deer movement patterns

Understanding and tracking the complexities of animal movement patterns is of paramount importance in wildlife management, conservation efforts, and the sustainable use of natural resources. An infinite number of factors influence the movement path of animals within their respective habitats, including: the structure of the habitat, the availability of resources, the presence of natural predators, social memory, the topographic attributes of the environment, etc.Numerous studies have attempted to delineate the spatial boundaries of animal habitats by elucidating the complexities of their movement dynamics. These investigations have highlighted the profound impact of factors such as environmental topography and the presence of natural impediments and other anthropogenic structures on animal mobility, but very few have analyzed topographic factors at a fine three-dimensional spatial scale.This research focuses on a novel methodology for identifying animal trajectories at a fine scale and evaluating the influence of topographic factors on these trajectories, specifically of deer herds in southern Spain. To understand movement patterns, transects recorded in the field due to continued use by deer are analyzed. Topographical information was obtained in two steps: first with a graphical analysis of orthophotos for the incorporation of the sufficient data set. Secondly, the veracity of this data was verified using Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking technology. The integration of data from multiple sources with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) allowed the analysis to be automated. Next a statistical linear regression model, based on both the ascent and descent lengths and the total length of the path traveled, was designed to infer the trajectories between two designated points within the study area. Using topographical variables obtained in the study environment, such as the slope, the elevation difference (cumulative vertical distance), and the 3D length of the transect paths, the influence of these variables on the movement decisions of animals within their habitat is established in order to facilitate their subsequent prediction.Analytical tests of the trajectories have shown that the movement behavior of cervids is predictable. The results demonstrate the usefulness of the methodology presented which, by providing and collect valuable topographic information on movement and transit areas, can guide sustainable management practices for deer populations and their habitats.

Evaluation of Antibody Tests for Mycobacterium bovis Infection in Pigs and Deer.

This study addressed the need in Great Britain for supplementary blood tests for deer and pig herds under movement restrictions due to confirmed Mycobacterium bovis infection-to enhance the overall sensitivity and reliability of tuberculosis (TB) testing and contribute to an exit strategy for these herds. We evaluated four antibody tests (lateral flow DPP VetTB Assay for Cervids, M. bovis IDEXX ELISA, Enferplex Cervid and Porcine antibody tests and an in-house comparative PPD ELISA) using serum samples from defined cohorts of TB-infected and TB-free deer and pigs. TB-infected deer included two separate cohorts; farmed deer that had received a tuberculin skin test less than 30 days prior, and park deer that had received no prior skin test. In this way, we were able to assess the effect of the skin test anamnestic boost upon antibody test sensitivity. We tested a total of 402 TB-free pigs and 416 TB-free deer, 77 infected farmed deer and 105 infected park deer, and 29 infected pigs (including 2 wild boar). For deer, we found an equivalent high performance of all four tests: specificity range 98.8-99.5% and sensitivity range 76.6-85.7% for skin test-boosted infected deer, and 51.4-58.1% for non-boosted infected deer. These data suggest an overall approximate 25% increase in test sensitivity for infected deer following a skin test boost. For pigs, the tests again had equivalent high specificity of 99-99.5% and a sensitivity range of 62.1-86.2%, with substantial agreement for three of the four tests. Retrospective application of the ELISA tests to individual culled park deer and wild boar that showed no obvious evidence of TB at larder inspection identified a significant seropositivity within wild boar suggestive of low-level M. bovis infection that would otherwise not have been detected. Overall this investigation provided a robust evaluation of four antibody tests, which is essential to generate confidence in test performance before a wider deployment within TB control measures can be considered.

Laboratory-confirmed three rabid spotted deer in Colombo suburbs in Sri Lanka: does it alarm the disease transmission to humans?

Rabies is a zoonotic viral disease which is fatal if post-exposure prophylaxis is not administered immediately after an infected bite. In Sri Lanka, around 20-30 human rabies deaths are reported each year, nearly all of which occur from being bitten by rabid dogs, which could occur due to lack of dog vaccination coverage, dog population management and community awareness (1). Three laboratory-confirmed rabid spotted deer were found in August 2022 in Homagama and Athurugiriya areas in Sri Lanka. Prevention of deer-to-human and deer-to-dog transmission is strengthened by multi-stakeholder collaboration. Controlling and preventing of transmission of the disease among the herd of deer, locating them in the dry zone as well as controlling their breeding remain a challenge. The rabid positive cases indicated that more animals could be affected by the disease, thus, the risk to human health and economic losses remain unknown. Therefore, vigilant attention is needed.

A study of the incidence of bovine tuberculosis in the wild red deer herd of Exmoor.

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is an infectious disease which thrives at the wildlife-livestock interface. Exmoor has the largest herd of wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) in England, and also a large number of dairy and beef farms. The population, health and well-being of the herd are managed by a combination of hunting with hounds and by stalking. This study used a serological assay to determine the incidence of bTB in the population of 106 wild red deer of Exmoor, the relationship between regional deer densities and the presence of bTB in deer, and domestic cattle. The overall number of bTB positive deer was 28.3% (30/106). Stalked deer had a slightly higher incidence of bTB (19 out of 55, 34.55%) than hunted deer (11 out of 51, 21.57%). There was no clear pattern of distribution except for one region which showed an incidence of 42.22% compared with 16.4% in the remainder of the moor. There was little difference in the incidence of bTB between male and female animals. The age of animals in the study ranged from < 1year to over 10years. There was no clear difference in the incidence across the age range (< 1year- > 10years) with the exception of a particularly high incidence in those animals aged 1year or less. There was a significant correlation between the presence of deer with bTB and the number of farms reporting bTB positive cattle, but not between the regional population of red deer and bTB in deer or cattle.

Alternative Strategy to Improve the Conservation of Javan Deer in Pangandaran Nature Reserve, West Java, Indonesia

The habitat of Javan deer in Pangandaran Nature Reserve (PNR) faced natural changes, particularly due to the succession process of vegetation community in grazing areas, and inadequate infrastructures that affected the deer to roam outside PNR. This study aimed to formulate strategies for the conservation of Javan deer in PNR, focusing on ecological aspects and conservation management. The methods were encountering Javan deer individuals; scan sampling and continuous recording to observe the behaviour of Javan deer; calculating the productivity of grazing area by defoliation experiment and vegetation analysis; reviewing documents, reports and interviews; and analysing strategy using SWOT-QSPM. Results showed there were 43 Javan deer encountered roaming in PNR and outside the conservation area, and nine individuals gathered in Cikamal grassland. The productivity of the grazing areas (5.61 ha) was 93,826 kg of feed annually and was only sufficient for 23 individuals. The grazing areas were dominated by Cynodon dactylon. Javan deer spent their time feeding. Javan deer herd in Cikamal is more intolerant to humans compared to the herd in Pangandaran Nature Tourist Park (PNTP). This study recommends: considering the management status of Javan deer in the conservation management of PNR and PNTP; improving the conservation management of Javan deer and its habitat; improving facilities and the management system of those facilities and conservation-supporting infrastructures; collaboration with researchers to perform some research and innovations for Javan deer conservation; improving the capability of PNR staff theoretically and practically; and educating and empowering the local people in terms of Javan deer conservation.

Comparing fecal DNA capture‐recapture to mark‐resight for estimating abundance of mule deer on winter ranges

AbstractMonitoring big game populations is necessary for making well‐informed management decisions. In the eastern Sierra Nevada in California, USA, mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) herds have been monitored using traditional mark‐resight methods on winter ranges since the 1990s. Although mark‐resight methods work well for estimating abundance, animal capture for marking is expensive, invasive, and risky. We were motivated to evaluate fecal DNA‐based capture‐recapture for estimating abundance on winter ranges based on the effectiveness of this new technique in other populations in California. This method has been successful for estimating abundance when animals are concentrated around a required resource or pellets are collected from game trails, but it has not been evaluated using randomly selected transects on winter ranges where traditional methods work well. We compared precision (CV) and cost of fecal DNA capture‐recapture surveys to aerial mark‐resight surveys for estimating population abundance. In the Round Valley and Goodale study areas in the eastern Sierra Nevada, we conducted annual aerial mark‐resight surveys and collected fecal pellet samples in Round Valley during winter 2020. We genotyped fecal DNA from pellets to identify unique individuals and sex. Population abundance estimates from aerial mark‐resight surveys were more precise in Round Valley (CV = 6.6%) compared to abundance estimates from fecal DNA capture‐recapture (CV = 20.4%). But based on simulations from Round Valley data, to obtain the same CV (CV = 10%), fecal DNA capture‐recapture was about 63% less expensive than aerial mark‐resight using very high frequency collars and 70% less expensive than aerial mark‐resight using global positioning system collars. In contrast, fecal DNA capture‐recapture did not succeed in the Goodale study area because of weather and logistical constraints. Determining which method is best depends on the situation, but fecal DNA capture‐recapture provides another tool for estimating population size on winter range. We conclude that fecal DNA capture‐recapture is a cost‐effective alternative for estimating abundance of ungulates on winter ranges when weather is not limiting and when researchers can survey an adequate proportion of the study area and collect an adequate number of samples.

Impact of landcover composition and density of localized deer culling sites on chronic wasting disease prevalence

Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD), the prion disease of the Cervidae family, has been managed in Illinois deer since it was first detected in the Fall of 2002. Management uses a state-sponsored localized focus culling (LFC) program, implemented as close as possible to previously identified CWD-infected locations (TRSs (township/range/section)). We used hunter-harvest and LFC deer from 4621 and 435 unique TRSs, respectively, over 16 years of surveillance and management (2003–2017). We divided the study area into groups of TRSs with similar landcover types (SPLT) to assess CWD hunter-harvest prevalence at LFC and non-LFC sites by landcover composition. We also evaluate the importance of the month when LFC was implemented and determine whether the density of LFC sites or the total number of deer removed by LFC predicts hunter-harvest CWD prevalence. The percentage of CWD positive samples from hunters was lower than for LFC samples (for the study area and SPLTs). The probability of CWD increased by 5.24% for all the SPLT groups combined in the study area, by 4.6% from areas without an LFC nearby, and by 1.21% for areas with a prior LFC nearby. For all the TRS in the study area, low CWD odds (<1) in hunter-harvest deer were found in three SPLTs, in two SPLTs within TRSs with non-LFC, and five in five SPLTs within TRSs with LFC. The results suggest the importance of accounting for landcover composition to implement and sustain management in habitats with a higher risk of CWD. Our findings support that hunter-harvest alone cannot control CWD and the critical need for continued LFC intervention. For the whole study area—regardless of landcover composition—LFC in January was more important in decreasing hunter-harvest CWD prevalence than when LFC was conducted in March. However, the LFC conducted in January, February, and March were equally important when evaluating the month per habitat. Furthermore, the density of LFC sites in proximity to known infected areas is a better predictor of CWD than the number of deer removed by LFC, suggesting that increasing the density of LFC sites has a greater impact on CWD. The proximity of LFC to infected areas helps control CWD. Ultimately, landowners’ and hunters’ collaborations with the CWD surveillance and management programs are critical to protecting the Illinois wild deer herd; this study demonstrates their ongoing and valuable contributions to protecting this natural and public resource.

Assigning Culicoides larvae to species using DNA barcoding of adult females and phylogenetic associations

BackgroundOrbivirus-induced hemorrhagic diseases cause high mortality in wild and captive white-tailed deer in North America. The role of different Culicoides species in Orbivirus transmission outside of areas of intensive animal production has not been established. At our study location, bluetongue virus (BTV) RNA-positive female Culicoides debilipalpis pools have been detected annually since 2012 when BTV transmission was noted in a captive deer herd. Identifying specific larval habitats of suspected vectors at active transmission sites is crucial both for identifying the source of the vectors and for subsequently planning intervention actions. Since C. debilipalpis larvae are known to develop in tree holes, this study was designed to use DNA barcoding to identify larvae collected from tree holes.MethodsAdult female Culicoides were collected using light or emergence traps and morphologically identified to 11 species. Culicoides sonorensis were also obtained from a laboratory colony. Substrate was collected from tree holes and flooded with water to harvest floating larvae. Total DNA from three to seven adult females per species and 19 larvae was extracted. Two loci of the nuclear 18S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene, one locus each of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene and the nuclear 28S rRNA gene were amplified using loci-specific primers.ResultsAll 61 adults were sequenced at each of the four loci under study. Since no single locus delineated all putative species and the COI locus yielded unreliable pseudogenes for two individuals of C. arboricola, sequences of all four loci were concatenated to maximize species separation and allow for larval association with identified adults. Sixteen larvae were clearly assigned to species based on DNA barcoding and phylogenetic results. Multiple larvae were assigned to each of the C. debilipalpis clade, the C. villosipennis clade, the C. arboricola clade and the C. nanus clade.ConclusionsOf the approximately 62 species described in the southeast USA, 21 have now been barcoded and sequences are publicly available. In this study, we constructed a database composed of species-specific sequences of adult Culicoides and then identified larvae to species by matching their corresponding sequences with adults. Since Culicoides larvae are difficult to identify, using DNA barcoding to facilitate larval habitat surveys can be a valuable tool.Graphical

Detection of chronic wasting disease in feces and recto-anal mucosal associated lymphoid tissues with RT-QuIC in a naturally infected farmed white-tailed deer herd.

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is an infectious prion disease affecting the cervids, including white-tailed deer (WTD) (Odocoileus virginianus). CWD is typically diagnosed postmortem in farmed cervids by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Amplification-based detection methods are newer generation tests currently being evaluated to improve the detection of prion disease. In addition to improving sensitivity, antemortem detection by amplification assays is a focus for improving disease control and management. In this study, we evaluate the use of real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) to detect CWD in fecal and recto-anal mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue (RAMALT) samples from naturally infected farmed WTD herds at postmortem. We successfully detected the presence of CWD prions in WTD RAMALT with a specificity of 100% and a sensitivity of 85.7% (n = 71) and in feces with a specificity of 100% and a sensitivity of 60% (n = 69), utilizing RT-QuIC on samples collected postmortem. Seeding activity detected in RAMALT (15.3 ± 4.2%, n = 18) was much stronger than in feces (44.4 ± 4.2%, n = 15), as measured by cycle threshold (Ct) and rise in relative fluorescence in samples collected from the same WTD. Prion detection in the RAMALT (94.7%) and feces (70.5%) was highest when both obex and retropharyngeal lymph nodes (RPLNs) were positive for CWD via IHC. In the study group, we were also able to test prion protein gene variants and associated disease susceptibility. A majority of tested WTD were the CWD genotype (96 GG) and also harbored the highest percentage of positive animals (43.7%). The second highest population of WTD was the genotype 96 GS and had a CWD positivity rate of 37.5%. Each of these groups showed no difference in RAMALT or fecal detection of CWD.

Phylogenetic and Multiple-Locus Variable number tandem repeat analysis of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis isolates from Argentina

Paratuberculosis is a worldwide chronic enteric disease of ruminants, caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP). While MAP has been widely investigated all around the world, little is known about the different strains that circulate in each country. This study describes the genetic diversity of MAP isolates from different bovine and deer herds from Argentina, analyzed by Multiple-Locus Variable number tandem repeat Analysis (MLVA), as well as the phylogenetic relatedness between geographically distant isolates through Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) and core-genome analysis. A total of 90 MAP isolates were analyzed. The results showed seven different MLVA genotypes, with almost 75% of them belonging to pattern INMV 1, described in all the herds studied. WGS results suggested the presence of a common INMV 1 strain circulating throughout the country. Our results allow confirming the coexistence of different strains in time and space and the mixed infections identified in some animals. These observations suggest the absence of animal monitoring prior to introduction to the herds and the need for a control program in the country. This study represents the first to report WGS of MAP strains in Argentina.

135 Vitamin E and Selenium Effects on White-tailed Deer Conception Success in Artificial Insemination Programs

Abstract The white-tailed deer breeding industry has developed into a $1.6 billion-dollar annual sector. However, even with this rapidly growing industry, little is known concerning certain mineral requirements for deer raised in confinement and their conception success. Previous research has suggested that white-tailed does are more apt to conceive with elevated circulating levels of zinc, vitamin E, and selenium. This research project consisted of ninety-three does on standard confinement diets, supplemented with only a single dose of Zn, Se, Mn, and Cu via MultiMin at the time of CIDR input. Supplementation of MultiMin was fixed across all animals in the study. These does were assessed by drawing blood at the time of artificial insemination (AI). Whole blood and serum samples were analyzed for micromineral levels (Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Se, and Zn) and fat-soluble metabolites (vitamin A, vitamin E, and cholesterol) at Texas Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory and analyzed using PROC REG in SAS. Conception success was determined by the does conceiving a fawn from from artificial insemination procedure which was verified via genetic testing of the fawn. It was found that the model containing the main effects vitamin E, zinc, and selenium along with their interactions of vitamin E by Zn and Se by Zinc was significant (P &amp;lt; 0.05; R2=0.15) on positively affecting conception success from artificial insemination. In particular, a tendency was detected in the relationship of vitamin E and selenium (P &amp;lt; 0.1). In post hoc analysis, parameter estimates from the regression were used, and selenium fixed at a level of 144 ng/mL is the point at which supplemental vitamin E has positive effects on conception from AI. This model shows that both vitamin E and selenium are required at higher levels than previously thought in confinement-reared white-tailed deer with intensive breeding programs. With further research using vitamin E and selenium, the mineral requirements of white-tailed deer in confinement can be better understood and aide producers in reproductive efficiency in their captive deer herds.

Testing the potential of streamflow data to predict spring migration of ungulate herds.

In mountainous and high latitude regions, migratory animals exploit green waves of emerging vegetation coinciding with rising daily mean temperatures initiating snowmelt across the landscape. Snowmelt also causes rivers and streams draining these regions to swell, a process referred to as to as the 'spring pulse.' Networks of streamgages measuring streamflow in these regions often have long-term and continuous periods of record available in real-time and at the daily time step, and thus produce data with potential to predict temporal migration patterns for species exploiting green waves. We tested the potential of models informed by streamflow data to predict timing of spring migration of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) herds in a headwater basin of the Colorado River. Models using streamflow data were compared with those informed by traditional temperature-derived measures of the onset of spring. Non-parametric linear-regression techniques were used to test for temporal stationarity in each variable, and logistic-regression models were used to produce probabilities of migration initiation. Our analysis indicates that models using daily streamflow data can perform as well as those using temperature-derived data to predict past-migration patterns, and nearly as well in potential to forecast future migrations. The best performing model was used to generate probabilities of onset of migration for mule deer herds over the 69-year period-of-record from a streamgage. That model indicated spring migration has been trending toward earlier initiations, with modeled median initiations shifting from a Julian day of 123 in the mid 20th century to Julian day 115 over the most recent two decades. The period of 1960 to 1979 had the latest modeled median initiations with Julian day of 128. The analyses demonstrate promise for merging existing hydrologic and biological data collection platforms in these regions to explore timing of past migration patterns and predict migration onsets in real-time.

Apparent stability masks underlying change in a mule deer herd with unmanaged chronic wasting disease

The contagious prion disease “chronic wasting disease” (CWD) infects mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and related species. Unchecked epidemics raise ecological, socioeconomic, and public health concerns. Prion infection shortens a deer’s lifespan, and when prevalence (proportion of adults infected) becomes sufficiently high CWD can affect herd dynamics. Understanding population responses over time is key to forecasting long-term impacts. Here we describe unexpected stability in prevalence and abundance in a mule deer herd where CWD has been left unmanaged. High apparent prevalence (~30%) since at least 2005 likely drove observed changes in the proportion and age distribution of wild-type native prion protein (PRNP) gene homozygotes among deer sampled. Predation by mountain lions (Puma concolor) may be helping keep CWD in check. Despite stable appearances, prion disease nonetheless impairs adult survival and likely resilience in this deer herd, limiting its potential for growth despite refuge from hunter harvest and favorable habitat and winter conditions.

The First Report of Elaphostrongylus cervi Infection in Two Imported Wapitis (Cervus canadensis) in Slovenia

This study describes two female wapitis (Cervus canadensis) with neurological signs associated with an Elaphostrongylus cervi (E. cervi) infection. The original host of the nematode parasite is the Eurasian red deer (Cervus elaphus), although other cervids and small ruminants may also be affected. The two wapitis imported from Canada were kept in an enclosure with the Slovenian red deer herd. After developing debilitating neurological signs, the wapitis were euthanized and examined for possible causes. A histopathological examination of the brain of the first wapiti revealed severe diffuse perivascular meningoencephalitis with chronic vasculitis, and some cross-sections of nematodes were found in the leptomeninges. A necropsy of the second wapiti revealed severe pachymeningitis and leptomeningitis, where several adult nematode parasites were found. E. cervi was confirmed by molecular methods. The prevalence of E. cervi in the European red deer population is high, but no study has been conducted to assess its prevalence in Slovenia. This was the first confirmation of E. cervi in Slovenia and the first infection with this parasite described in Europe in a wapiti. Elaphostrongylus cervi should also be considered as a differential diagnosis in Europe for all ruminants grazing on pastures frequented by red deer and showing neurological clinical signs.

A new direction in livestock in Stavropol

The materials on the study of the acclimatization properties of European deer imported to the territory of the Stavropol Territory are presented. Based on the study of the adaptive characteristics of European deer, including constitutional and exterior characteristics, the natural relationships between the main characteristics are determined, according to which breeding work will be carried out in the herd in the future. It was established that the imported herd of deer and reindeer in the conditions of the Stavropol Territory successfully passed acclimatization. When assessing the growth and development of different sex and age groups, it was not established that these animals have external disadvantages, which will allow them to be used in the further breeding process to obtain healthy offspring.

Social Behaviour and Circadian Variations in Different Activities of Captive Hog Deer (Axis porcinus)

Management practices/strategies to re-modulate the wild behaviour of animal species could increase their number in natural areas. The captive herd of hog deer showed slight changes from wild behaviour due to captive stress with no alteration in wild behaviour pattern except captive stress. Adult males (6), adult females (6) and fawns (6) were selected and observed round the clock for thirty days across season after one-hour interval on each activity. All subjects in hotter part of the day spent more time in sitting and rest. While, few hours of night in sleeping, resting and rumination. Fawn spent more time in sitting, resting, and hiding compared to adults. During wandering, they also spent some time in standing. It was noticed that all hog deer in herd not slept together but few of them remain active. Only male fighting was observed and maximum was noticed in August and September during breeding season. Hog deer were mainly crepuscular in feeding with irregular short intakes, and grazing on grasses present in enclosure. This study provides guideline to rehabilitate wild hog deer for better breeding management, conservation and raising practices.

Study of variability of cognitive performance in captive fallow deer (Dama dama) through g and c factors

Psychometric studies reveal a variability that ranges between 30 and 75 % for different cognitive processes, both in humans and non-human animals. This variability has been ascribed to a “general intelligence” factor (g). Current studies implemented in non-human animals to identify individual differences in cognitive skills are still far from those applied in humans. We tested for cognitive performance in a fallow deer herd using a test battery of eight tasks based on measures for cognitive development in untamed confined wild animals: motor control, spatial memory, colour and tone discrimination and inversion, inhibitory control and symbol discrimination tests. g factor explained 60 % of the variability in cognitive performance. Significant correlations, both positive and negative, were found between the different cognitive processes studied. Likewise, the cognitive performance of the group was affected by a “collective intelligence” factor (c), inferred through variables describing the hierarchical structure of the studied population but which, however does not affect individual intelligence quotient of the members of the group.