Hepatitis E Virus Seroprevalence Research Articles

Epidemiological study of hepatitis E virus infection among students and workers in Hebei Province of China.

Hepatitis E caused by the hepatitis E virus (HEV) is prevalent worldwide. In China, considerable shifts in the epidemiology of hepatitis E have been observed over the last two decades, with ongoing changes in the prevalence of HEV. This study, in conjunction with the health examinations for students and workers, aims to estimate the seroprevalence and assess the risk factors of HEV infection in general population in Hebei province, China. Epidemiological information was collected using a specific questionnaire and blood samples were collected from each participant during the process of health examination. Anti-HEV IgG and IgM in sera were tested using the Wantai ELISA assay kits. Logistic regression modelling was used to identify associated risk factors. The average positive rate of anti-HEV IgG in students (6-25 years) was 3.4%. One (0.2%) student was anti-HEV IgM positive, while also testing positive for IgG. The HEV seroprevalence was not related to students' gender, school, or family residence. In occupational populations, the overall seropositivity rate was 13.3% for anti-HEV IgG and 0.67% for IgM. HEV seropositivity increased significantly with age, ranging from 3.8% to 18.6% in age groups, and differed significantly among four occupation groups: farmers (17.6%), food supply workers (18.0%), other non-farm workers (14.7%) and healthcare workers (5.9%) (p = 0.002). Multivariable logistic analysis confirmed the significant correlations of seroprevalence with age and occupation. The study found a low seroprevalence of HEV in children and young adults in Hebei Province, China. Advanced age correlates with higher seroprevalence in occupational populations, indicating an accumulation of HEV infection over time. Seroprevalence varied significantly among different occupation groups, suggesting the important role of occupational exposure for HEV infection.

Previous hepatitis E virus infection is associated with increased liver stiffness in patients with autoimmune hepatitis.

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a chronic, progressive liver disease which, in most cases, may require lifelong immunosuppression. Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a leading cause of acute, typically self-limited, hepatitis worldwide, although immunocompromised patients may develop chronic hepatitis. Here, we evaluated the impact of HEV seropositivity on the clinical course of AIH. A group of 374 adult patients with AIH (female 68%, age 34 (18-83) years, 38% with liver cirrhosis) was analyzed. Serum HEV IgG and IgM antibodies were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, liver fibrosis was assessed by liver stiffness measurement (LSM), and liver cirrhosis was confirmed with liver histology or LSM. Fifty-five (15%) patients with AIH were HEV IgG-positive. These patients were older (P <0.001) and had higher BMI and higher LSM (both P <0.05). In a multivariable model including ALT and immunoglobulin G, the HEV seropositive status was associated with an increased risk of advanced liver fibrosis with OR 3.69 (95% CI 1.26-10.77, P = 0.02) as reflected by liver stiffness ≥10.5 kPa. HEV IgG seropositivity was, however, not linked with the type of treatment or worse AIH outcome. The seroprevalence of HEV in patients with AIH was lower compared to results available for Polish blood donors (43%). Patients with AIH and HEV IgG-positive status seem to be at risk of more advanced liver fibrosis. However, the overall seroprevalence of HEV IgG is a lower in patients with AIH than in the blood donors in Poland.

Unveiling the Hepatitis E Seroprevalence: Insights from Dicle University Hospital in Southeastern Turkey

Introduction: Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a substantial concern for public health with varying seroprevalence rates globally. In this study, HEV seroprevalence in patients admitted to Dicle University Hospital, in the southeastern area of Turkey, was investigated.&#x0D; Methods: The test results for immunoglobulin M type HEV antibodies (Anti-HEV IgM) and immunoglobulin G type HEV antibodies (Anti-HEV IgG) of patients applied to Dicle University Hospital for various reasons between 2017 and 2021 were retrospectively analyzed. The sera samples underwent testing to identify IgG and IgM antibodies using HEV IgG and HEV IgM test kits (Dia-Pro Diagnostic Bioprobes, Milan, Italy) on the Triturus micro-ELISA system (Grifols SA, Barcelona, Spain). The study included both adult and pediatric patients. Statistical analysis was conducted to assess the associations between gender and age groups (pediatric and adult) and HEV seropositivity utilizing the chi-square test at a significance threshold of p

ASSESSMENT OF THE CONTRIBUTION OF WILDLIFE AND DOMESTIC PIGS IN HEPATITIS E VIRUS TRANSMISSION AND ZOONOTIC POTENTIAL IN EASTERN ROMANIA

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) has been confirmed within the landscape of the European food industry, representing a significant factor in the dissemination of HEV among European citizens. Food-borne transmission of HEV appears to be a major route in Europe, pigs and wild boars being the main source. The results of this study highlight an overall HEV seroprevalence of 12.8% (95%CI: 7.95-17.75) in wild boars and detection of HEV RNA in all three fresh pig liver batches sampled from a slaughterhouse in Iași County. Given the prevalent dietary preferences in Romania, pork stands out as a highly favored food choice among the populace. However, the popularity of pork also raises concerns, as there exists the occasional risk of contamination with HEV, presenting a potential threat to consumer health. Ongoing surveillance, regulatory measures, and public awareness initiatives collectively may represent a comprehensive strategy to protect the consumers and ensure the safety of pork products in the market.

Anti-HEV seroprevalence and rate of viremia in a German cohort of dogs, cats, and horses

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) genotype 3 infections in Germany are mainly transmitted zoonotically through the consumption of swine meat. Furthermore, there is evidence that pets might come into contact with HEV, but the relevance of companion animals as possible sources of HEV transmission in Germany still needs to be defined. A monitoring study was therefore carried out on dogs, cats, and horses from Germany. In total 365 serum samples from pets (124 dogs, 119 cats, and 122 horses) were tested for HEV by PCR and for anti-HEV antibodies by a commercial ELISA. The HEV seroprevalence determined by the sero-assay varied significantly between dogs (10%), cats (6%), and horses (2%). Liver injury-related enzymes, alanine transaminase (ALT), and aspartate transaminase (AST) showed no differences between HEV-positive or negative animals. None of the pet serum samples tested positive for PCR. This serological study suggests that dogs and cats are significantly exposed to HEV in Germany, while horses are of minor relevance.

Seroprevalence of hepatitis E virus (HEV) among male craft and manual workers in Qatar (2020–2021)

BackgroundThe rapid growth of Qatar in the last two decades has attracted a large influx of immigrant craft and manual workers (CMWs) seeking employment in jobs associated with food handling, domestic service, and construction. Nearly 60 % of Qatar's population are expatriates CMWs, including many from hyperendemic countries for HEV. Thus, estimating the seroprevalence of HEV in Qatar and understanding its epidemiology is essential for public health efforts to control HEV transmission in Qatar. MethodsBlood samples from 2670 CMWs were collected between 2020 and 2021. All samples were tested for HEV-IgG antibodies. Positive HEV-IgG samples were tested for HEV-IgM antibodies, and those positives were also tested for viral antigens using an HEV-Ag ELISA kit and HEV-RNA by RT-PCR to confirm current HEV infections. ResultsThe seroprevalence of HEV-IgG was 27.3 % (729/2670; 95 % CI: 25.6–29.0). Of those HEV-IgG positive, 8.23 % (60/729; 95 % CI: 6.30–10.5) were HEV-IgM positive. Of the IgM-positive samples, 2 were HEV-RNA positive (3.39 %; 95 % CI: 0.40–11.7), and 1 was HEV-Ag positive (1.69 %; 95 % CI: 0.04–9.09). In addition, HEV-IgG seroprevalence was associated with age and nationality, with the highest seroprevalence in participants from Egypt (IgG 60.0 %; IgM 5.56 %), Pakistan (IgG 59.0 %; IgM 2.24 %), Nepal (IgG 29.3 %; IgM 2.70 %), Bangladesh (IgG 27.8 %; IgM 2.45 %), and India (IgG 23.9 %; IgM 2.43 %). ConclusionIn this study, we showed that the seroprevalence of HEV among CMWs was slightly higher than what was previously reported among the urban population in Qatar (2013–2016).

High Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) Seroprevalence and No Evidence of HEV Viraemia in Vietnamese Blood Donors.

The prevalence of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in the Vietnamese population remains underestimated. The aim of the present study was to investigate the seroprevalence of HEV IgG/IgM antibodies and the presence of HEV RNA in blood donors as a part of epidemiological surveillance for transfusion-transmitted viruses. Serum samples from blood donors (n = 553) were analysed for markers of past (anti-HEV IgG) and recent/ongoing (anti-HEV IgM) HEV infections. In addition, all serum samples were subsequently tested for HEV RNA positivity. The overall prevalence of anti-HEV IgG was 26.8% (n = 148/553), while the seroprevalence of anti-HEV IgM was 0.5% (n = 3/553). Anti-HEV IgG seroprevalence in male and female donors was similar (27.1% and 25.5%, respectively). A higher risk of hepatitis E exposure was observed with increasing age. None of the blood donors were HEV RNA positive, and there was no evidence of HEV viraemia. Although the absence of HEV viraemia in blood donors from Northern Vietnam is encouraging, further epidemiological surveillance in other geographical regions is warranted to rule out transfusion-transmitted HEV.

Exploring hepatitis E virus seroprevalence and associated risk factors among the human population in Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection is a common cause of acute clinical hepatitis worldwide and is emerging as a disease in Argentina. It is primarily transmitted through contaminated water and food, following the fecal-oral route. Furthermore, is a zoonotic disease with swine as the primary reservoir. Prevalence of HEV infection in humans in several regions of Argentina remains unknown. (i) Determine the seroprevalence of HEV among the human population in Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina; (ii) Evaluate its association with demographic, socioeconomic and other risk exposures variables, and (iii) Describe and analyze spatial patterns related to HEV infection. From August 2020 to July 2021, serum samples were collected from 969 individuals aged 1-80 years. Seroprevalence and 95% Confidence Interval was determined. To assess the factors associated with the presence of anti-HEV antibodies, associations between the variables and seropositivity were evaluated through bivariate and multivariate analysis. Spatial scanning for clusters of positivity was carried out. Factors associated with these clusters were also assessed. Anti-HEV antibodies were detected in 4.64% (IC 95% 3.27-6.02) of samples. Dark urine was associated with seropositivity (p = 0.02). Seropositivity was linked with the presence of natural water courses near their households (p = 0.02); the age (p = 0.04); and previous travel to Europe (p = 0.04). A spatial cluster of low rates of HEV seropositivity was detected, with greater distance of the households to water courses associated to the cluster, and male sex inversely associated to it. This study is the first study to investigate the prevalence of HEV in the population from Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Considering HEV infection in the differential diagnosis in individuals presenting acute hepatitis is highlighted. The incorporation of HEV testing into blood screening policies should be mandatory. Factors related to the infection and spatial patterns of high and low risk were determined, and should be considered when implementing specific preventive measures.

Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) Infection among Hemodialysis Patients from Southern Bulgaria.

Viral hepatitis B and C are widely recognized problems in hemodialysis (HD) patients. There have been increasing reports of the importance of the hepatitis E virus (HEV) in recent years, but the worldwide data on the seroprevalence of HEV among them are conflicting. The aim of the present study was to assess the seroprevalence of HEV in HD patients and to analyze the predictors of seropositivity. This study was conducted in 2020 in the central part of southern Bulgaria. A total of 225 patients were enrolled. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the determination of anti-HEV IgM/IgG was used. All patients were tested for the presence of HEV RNA. Anti-HEV IgM alone and anti-HEV IgG alone were found in 6 (2.7%) and 14 (6.2%) patients, respectively, and in 4 (1.8%) patients, they were found simultaneously. All patients were HEV RNA-negative. The overall HEV seroprevalence was 10.7% (24/225). The binominal logistic regression analysis of available predictors confirmed the role of vascular access and a duration of dialysis treatment over 5 years as predictors significantly associated with increased risk for HEV, and the consumption of bottled water with lower levels of HEV IgG seroprevalence among hemodialysis patients. The accumulated data are the basis for comparative analysis in subsequent trials in the same dialysis centers and for enhancing the range of screening markers used in this particular patient group.

Seroprevalence of emerging hepatitis E virus in patients with acute hepatitis between 2004 and 2018 in Csongrád county, Hungary.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) has recently become endemic in Europe, however, it is often a remnant neglected by clinicians as the causative agent of acute and chronic hepatitis and is often misdiagnosed as a drug-induced liver injury. The infection rate in European pig farms is estimated to be around 15-20%, therefore, the primary source of HEV infections might be poorly prepared pork meat. As HEV infections may occur more often in clinical practice than previously thought, the present paper aims to analyse the seroprevalence of HEV in patients with acute hepatitis over a period of 14 years in Csongrád County, Hungary. The sera of 4,270 hepatitis patients collected between 2004-2018 were tested for cumulative anti-HEV IgG/IgM. Furthermore, 170 IgM positive sera were tested for the presence of viral RNA by RT-qPCR. Between 2012-2018, the cumulative seroprevalence has increased 9.18 times, and between 2013-2018, IgM prevalence has increased 12.49 times. Viral RNA was detectable in 12.35% of IgM positive sera. The present paper presents data showing that the seroprevalence of hepatitis E virus has increased markedly over the course of the last decade in Hungary and in other European countries as well. The exact reason behind this phenomenon is yet to be determined. To assess the dynamics and the reason for this increase in prevalence, pan-European, multicentre studies should be conducted.

Epidemiology of HEV Infection in Blood Donors in Southern Switzerland.

From 2014 to 2016, the number of hepatitis E virus (HEV) infections in southern Switzerland increased dramatically and suggested food as a potential infection reservoir. We evaluated the effects of food control measures introduced to limit HEV infections, assessing anti-HEV IgG and IgM rates in blood donors before and after the implementation of food control measures in 2017. From 2012 to 2013, we screened 1283, and from 2017 to 2019, we screened 1447 donors for IgG and IgM antibodies. No statistically significant differences were detected for IgG (32.8% from 2012 to 2013 vs. 31.1% from 2017 to 2019, p = 0.337) or IgM rates (2.0% from 2012 to 2013 vs. 2.8% from 2017 to 2019, p = 0.21). Rural provenience and age > 66 are predictors for positive IgG serology. A total of 5.9% of 303 donors included in both groups lost IgG positivity. We also determined nucleic acid testing (NAT) rates after the introduction of this test in 2018, comparing 49,345 donation results from southern Switzerland with those of 625,559 Swiss donor controls, and only 9 NAT-positive donors were found from 2018 to 2023. The high HEV seroprevalence in southern Switzerland may depend on different food supply chains in rural and urban areas. Local preventive measures probably have a limited impact on blood HEV risk; thus, continuous NAT testing is recommended.

First serological and molecular investigation of hepatitis E virus infection in dromedary camels in Algeria.

Hepatitis E is an acute self-limited or fulminant infection in humans, caused by the hepatitis E virus (HEV). This member of the Hepeviridae family has been identified in a wide range of domestic and wild animals all over the world, with a possible transmission to humans through fecal oral route, direct contact and ingestion of contaminated meat products, making it one of the global zoonotic and public health major concerns. Since there is no monitoring program and a lack of data on HEV in animals in Algeria, the current preliminary survey has been undertaken to elucidate the exposure to the virus in camels at abattoirs of six southern provinces of Algeria. Two-hundred and eight sera/plasma were collected and analyzed (by double antigen sandwich ELISA) for the presence of total anti-HEV antibodies, among which 35.1% were positive, but no HEV RNA could be isolated from them (by two pan-HEV nested RT-PCR and broad range real-time reverse transcription RT-PCR). The univariate analysis showed significant associations (p < 0.05) between HEV seroprevalence and province of origin, age, and sex of camels, whereas the multivariable logistic regression analysis revealed a negative impact of camels' age on it. The obtained results confirm that HEV infection is widespread established in the camelid population of Algeria.

Meta-analysis and moderator analysis of the seroprevalence of hepatitis E in South-Eastern Asia

By 2030, the World Health Organization wants to decrease viral hepatitis incidence and mortality by 90% and 65%, respectively. One of the agents responsible for the increased burden of viral hepatitis is the hepatitis E virus (HEV). This emerging pathogen is prevalent worldwide causing both acute and chronic infection. The rising risk profile of HEV has become a source of increased global public health concern. Despite this challenge, South-Eastern Asia (SEA), where many at-risk people are found, lacks uniform HEV prevalence data. Therefore, a meta-analysis was conducted to assess the overall prevalence of hepatitis E in SEA. Using R statistical software, a random effect model was used to estimate the logit-transformed prevalence. Moderator analyses were used to investigate the potential sources of variation. Thirty-two studies comprising 29,944 with 6806 anti-HEV antibody-positive individuals were evaluated. The overall HEV seroprevalence in SEA was 21% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 17–27) with high heterogeneity. At the country level, Laos has the highest prevalence estimate of 39% (CI: 16–69). Also, the studied population, year of publication, duration of sampling, and diagnostic method are significant HEV prevalence predictors accounting for 22.61% of the observed heterogeneity. The high HEV prevalence found in this study necessitates coordinated national and regional efforts to combat this emerging disease.

First Insight into the Seroepidemiology of Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) in Dogs, Cats, Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Goats from Bulgaria.

In recent years, hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection has been found to be widespread among different animal species worldwide. In Bulgaria, high HEV seropositivity was found among pigs (60.3%), wild boars (40.8%), and East Balkan swine (82.5%). The aim of the present study was to establish the seroprevalence of HEV among dogs, cats, horses, cattle, sheep, and goats in Bulgaria. In total, 720 serum samples from six animal species were randomly collected: dogs-90 samples; cats-90; horses-180; cattle-180; sheep-90; and goats-90. The serum samples were collected from seven districts of the country: Burgas, Kardzhali, Pazardzhik, Plovdiv, Sliven, Smolyan, and Stara Zagora. The animal serum samples were tested for HEV antibodies using the commercial Wantai HEV-Ab ELISA kit (Beijing, China). The overall HEV seroprevalence among different animal species from Bulgaria was as follows: dogs-21.1%; cats-17.7%; horses-8.3%; cattle-7.7%; sheep-32.2%; and goats-24.4%. We found the lowest overall HEV seropositivity in Plovdiv district (6.2%; 4/64; p = 0.203) and Smolyan district (8.8%; 4/45; p = 0.129), vs. the highest in Pazardzhik district (21.6%; 29/134; p = 0.024) and Burgas district (28.8%; 26/90; p = 0.062). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first serological evidence of HEV infection in dogs, cats, horses, cattle, sheep, and goats from Bulgaria. We found high HEV seropositivity in small ruminants (sheep and goats), moderate seropositivity in pets (dogs and cats), and a low level of seropositivity in large animals (horses and cattle). Previous Bulgarian studies and the results of this research show that HEV infection is widespread among animals in our country. In this regard, the Bulgarian health authorities must carry out increased surveillance and control of HEV infection among animals in Bulgaria.

Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) Infection in Hemodialysis Patients: A Multicenter Epidemiological Cohort Study in North-Eastern Greece.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV), a common cause of viral hepatitis in developing countries, is mainly transmitted via the fecal-oral route, but also may be a prevalent hospital-transmitted agent among patients on regular hemodialysis due to parenteral transmission. Previous epidemiological studies among hemodialysis patients in Greece, using different diagnostic techniques, gave conflicting results. Τhe present study aimed to measure the exposure rate of hemodialysis patients of north-eastern Greece to HEV by estimating the overall seroprevalence, and to identify potential risk factors. Serum samples from all patients attending the hemodialysis centers of north-eastern Greece (n = 6) were tested for the presence of anti-HEV IgG antibodies using a modern and sensitive ELISA (Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay) technique (Wantai). In total, 42 out of 405 hemodialysis patients were positive for anti-HEV IgG (10.4%), while all samples were negative for HEV RNA when tested using nested RT-PCR. HEV seropositivity among hemodialysis patients was significantly associated with area of residence and contact with specific animals (pork, deer). No association was found with religion, gender distribution and hemodialysis duration. This study showed an increased seroprevalence of HEV among hemodialysis patients in Greece. Agricultural or livestock occupation and place of residence seem to be independent factors that increase the risk of HEV infection. In conclusion, HEV infection calls for the regular screening of hemodialysis patients regardless of the hemodialysis duration or clinical symptoms.

Absence of Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) Circulation in the Most Widespread Wild Croatian Canine Species, the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and Jackal (Canis aureus moreoticus).

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) can infect a wide range of domestic and wild animals, and the identification of new host species is reported successively worldwide. Nevertheless, its zoonotic potential and natural transmission, especially in wildlife remains unclear, primarily due to the discrete nature of HEV infections. Since the red fox (Vulpus vulpus) is the most widespread carnivore worldwide, and has been recognized as a potential HEV reservoir, its role as a potent host species is of increasing interest. Another wild canine species, the jackal （Canis aureus moreoticus）, is becoming more important within the same habitat as that of the red fox since its number and geographical distribution have been rapidly growing. Therefore, we have chosen these wild species to determine their potential role in the epidemiology and persistence of HEV in the wilderness. The main reason for this is the finding of HEV and a rather high HEV seroprevalence in wild boars sharing the same ecological niche as the wild canine species, as well as the risk of the spread of HEV through red foxes into the outskirts of cities, where possible indirect and even direct contact with people are not excluded. Therefore, our study aimed to investigate the possibility of natural HEV infection of free-living wild canines, by testing samples for the presence of HEV RNA and anti-HEV antibodies to gain better epidemiological knowledge of the disease. For this purpose, 692 red fox and 171 jackal muscle extracts and feces samples were tested. Neither HEV RNA nor anti-HEV antibodies were detected. Although HEV circulation was not detected in the tested samples, to our knowledge, these are the first results that include jackals as a growing and important omnivore wildlife species for the presence of HEV infection in Europe.

Prevalence of Hepatitis A Virus and Hepatitis E Virus in a tertiary care hospital, East Delhi, India.

Background &amp; Aim: Acute viral hepatitis (AVH) is a condition that is known to be caused by enterically transmitting Hepatitis A virus (HAV) and Hepatitis E virus (HEV). Usually, they result in self-limiting disease but can be seriously threatening if complications arise. This study was done to determine the prevalence rate of HAV and HEV in a tertiary care hospital in East Delhi, India.&#x0D; Material &amp; Methods: The retrospective and observational study of 2-year duration was conducted in the Department of Microbiology at UCMS and GTBH Delhi, India. A total of 410 samples from patients presenting with a clinical diagnosis of acute hepatitis were considered in the study. The serum samples were analysed for IgM anti-HAV and IgM anti-HEV, respectively, using commercially available ELISA kits.&#x0D; Results: The seroprevalence of HAV and HEV were 2.19% and 0.24%, respectively. No case was found to be reactive for both parameters, indicating no case of co-infection. The majority of clinical samples were from female patients.&#x0D; Conclusion: The incidence of HEV and HAV illnesses suggests that East Delhi has a lower prevalence rate of the reported viral illnesses. This finding suggests one of the following: limited circulation of the agents, good sanitary conditions, and/or protective immunity among the population tested. Nonetheless, we should continue to assess the ongoing conditions and take measures to improve them.

Hepatitis E Virus Research in Brazil: Looking Back and Forwards.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) has emerged as a public health concern in Brazil. From the first identification and characterization of porcine and human HEV-3 strains in the 2000s, new HEV subtypes have been identified from animal, human, and environmental isolates. As new potential animal reservoirs have emerged, there is a need to compile evidence on the zoonotic dissemination of the virus in animal hosts and the environment. The increasing amount of seroprevalence data on sampled and randomly selected populations must be systematically retrieved, interpreted, and considered under the One Health concept. This review focused on HEV seroprevalence data in distinct animal reservoirs and human populations reported in the last two decades. Furthermore, the expertise with experimental infection models using non-human primates may provide new insights into HEV pathogenesis, prevention, and environmental surveillance.

Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) in Makkah, Saudi Arabia: A Population-Based Seroprevalence Study.

The Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a common cause of viral hepatitis worldwide. Little is known about the seroprevalence of HEV in the general population of Saudi Arabia. A community-based cross-sectional HEV seroprevalence study was conducted in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Anti-HEV IgG antibodies were detected in sera using an in-house ELISA. The frequency of HEV sageerology and its correlation with demographic, and environmental factors were evaluated. Enrollment consisted of 1329 individuals, ages ranged from 8 to 88 years, the mean age was 30.17 years, the median age was 28yrs, and the male: female ratio was 1.15. The overall seroprevalence was 23.8% (316/1329). Males had significantly higher seroprevalence than females (66.1 vs. 33.9%; p < 0.001). Seroprevalence had significant correlations with age, occupation, and lack of regular water supply and housing conditions. This is the first HEV community-based seroprevalence study from Saudi Arabia. Results show that the HEV is endemic in Makkah and affects all age groups and occupations. HEV affects more males than females and those living in crowded accommodations without a regular supply of water. Further studies are required across all regions of Saudi Arabia to determine the country's seroprevalence of active or past infection using tests for HEV IgG, HEV IgM antibodies and/or HEV RNA and underlying determinants of transmission.

Seroprevalence of Hepatitis E virus in children and adolescents living in urban Bogotá: An explorative cross-sectional study.

The majority of Hepatitis E Virus (HEV)-related studies are carried out in adults whereas information about HEV seroprevalence, clinical disease manifestation, molecular epidemiology, and transmission patterns in children is limited. To estimate HEV seroprevalence among scholar children living in an urban setting and to analyze risk factors for an infection, we invited children aged 5-18 years from Bogotá (Colombia) for a cross-sectional survey. We collected self-reported data on demographics, social, clinical, and exposure variables in a structured interview. Venous blood samples were analyzed with two commercially available ELISAs for HEV-specific IgG antibodies. Among the 263 participants, we found three HEV IgG-reactive samples (1.1%) using both assays. We additionally characterized the samples for HEV IgM using a commercially available IgM ELISA and for HEV RNA. Here, we found one IgM-reactive sample, which was also reactive for IgG. In contrast, none of the IgM- and IgG-reactive sera samples showed detectable RNA levels indicating HEV exposure had not been recently. All participants reported access to drinking water and sanitary systems in their households and frequent hand washing routines (76-88%). Eighty percent of children reported no direct contact with pigs, but occasional pork consumption was common (90%). In contrast to the majority of studies performed in Colombian adults, we found a low unadjusted HEV seroprevalence of 1.1% (95% CI: 0.3-3.6%) for both HEV IgG ELISAs in our study population. While the majority of participants reported pork consumption, we speculate in the absence of viral RNA for genotyping in the affected individuals, that existing access to drinking water and sanitary systems within our study group contribute to the low HEV seroprevalence.