Hemudu Research Articles

A Brief Analysis of the Inheritance and Development of Axi Earthen Pottery

Axi earthen pottery is a traditional Chinese pottery produced in Asi Village which turns black after firing. Its history can even be traced back to the original black pottery dates back to the Hemudu culture in Yuyao 7,000 years ago. On June 14, 2008, Asi pottery was included in the second batch of national intangible cultural heritage list. It is not only a national "intangible cultural heritage" but also a unique traditional folk handicraft product. It is also known as one of the "Four Wonders" of Daocheng Yading. As the times change, it also encounters many difficulties and contradictions in the process of protection and development, and its living conditions, production, production, form, function, etc. will all change. In the context of today's Internet+ era, as well as the comprehensive development of the modern cultural tourism industry, this article actively explores effective countermeasures from multiple angles through field research, and proposes to introduce the intangible cultural heritage project Asi pottery into college classrooms and break the outdated family tradition of Asi pottery. It is hoped that it will play a certain positive role in the inheritance and development of Asi pottery, an intangible cultural heritage with unique national characteristics.

Hemudu – Chinese early Neolithic culture

The subject of this research is the Chinese Neolithic Hemudu culture (河姆渡文化), it will be 50 years since its discovery in 2023. Its age is estimated at 6500-7000 years. Based on the analysis of archaeological reports, materials of the Hemudu Museum and research of Chinese and Russian scientists, the authors put the light on the geographical location of the ancient settlement of Hemudu, the history of its discovery, its main typological features, which led to identifying it as a independent culture of the Neolithic period of Eastern China. Hemudu had a great influence on the cultural genesis of Chinese civilization. More than 40 prehistoric settlements are attributed to the Hemudu culture. In this article, the authors gave a brief description of one of them – the ruins of Xiangjiashan (鲞架山遗址). The main conclusions of the study are as follows: the discovery and identification of the Hemudu culture was a major breakthrough in Chinese Neolithic archeology. It proved that the Yangtze basin was also the birthplace of ancient Chinese culture and rewrote the history of the development of Chinese civilization. In terms of its typological features, the Neolithic settlement of Xiangjiashan is similar to Hemudu, which indicates their genetic connection. The remains of the early Xiangjiashan period filled the gap in the history of the Hemudu settlement, making it more logical and understandable for researchers. All finds made not only in the settlement of Hemudu, but also in Xiangjiashan are extremely important for understanding the development of Chinese culture.

Unveiling the Mid-Holocene coastal hydrological changes and their impacts on Neolithic cultures along the South Hangzhou Bay of eastern China

The Ningfeng Plain on the South Hangzhou Bay in eastern China has long been recognized as a critical location for understanding the complex relationship between paleoenvironmental changes and human activities. Despite frequent hydrological alterations, the development of Neolithic cultures in this region offers a valuable opportunity to comprehend how ancient societies adapted to environmental transformations in the coastal zone. In this study, the authors analyzed a recently obtained sediment core (LJQ) from the Lujiaqiao archaeological site in order to reconstruct the coastal evolution of the study area over the Holocene. The foraminifera assemblage in core LJQ indicates that the study area was located in a coastal-littoral environment approximately 8.1–7.5 cal kyr BP, which gradually transitioned to an estuary receiving significant input from the open marine around 7.5–7.2 cal kyr BP. Magnetic parameters of the core then reveal the formation of a tidal brackish marsh during a period of marine regression around 7.2–5.5 cal kyr BP. The authors identified at least three episodes of elevated groundwater, likely caused by minor sea-level fluctuations. After 5.5 cal kyr BP, the influence of seawater diminished while freshwater influx increased, resulting in land formation and the development of a freshwater wetland. The Hemudu Culture first appeared in the hinterland of the Ningfeng Plain around 6.5–6.0 cal kyr BP. However, the instability of groundwater hydrological conditions would have hindered the development of Neolithic culture until the formation of the freshwater wetland at 5.5 cal kyr BP, yet the subsequent emmigration of the Liangzhu Culture was not related to any discernible environmental degradation. This study sheds new light on the complexity of the dynamic interplay between humans and their environment over time.

Early to mid-Holocene sedimentary environmental evolution in the palaeo-Ningbo Bay, East China and its implications for Neolithic coastal settlement

The Ningbo Plain on the East China coast is an important center of Neolithic culture, and associated settlements were influenced by changing sea levels and the geomorphological and hydrological environments of the palaeo-Ningbo Bay, the details of which are still subject to debate. This study is based on two well-dated sediment cores obtained from the Ningbo Plain, and here we report analyses of their sedimentology and foraminifera to reveal the infilling history of the palaeo-Ningbo Bay and its association with Neolithic occupation. The lithology of the largely muddy sediments and the dominance of euryhaline and brackish water foraminiferal species are indicative of an intertidal to a subtidal environment in the palaeo-bay during the early to mid-Holocene. Abrupt coarsening of sediment grain size and a corresponding increase in the abundance of foraminiferal species of inner and middle shelf environments occurred at ca. 8.8 cal. kyr BP and 7.6 cal. kyr BP, reflecting two major events of strengthened marine transgression that correspond to the rapid global sea-level rise events of Meltwater pulses (MWPs) 1C and 1D, respectively. A marked increase in the relative abundance of Ammonia annectens and Ammonia compressiuscula during ca. 7.5–7.1 cal. kyr BP further indicates frequent storm surges at that time. Between the two rapid transgression events, aggradation of tidal flats prevailed after ca. 8.0 cal. kyr BP, which provided a suitable setting for Neolithic settlements, as indicated by the recently discovered Jingtoushan site. However, the transgression sequence associated with the latter, the MWP-1D event, caused a regional cultural interruption at ca. 7.6 cal. kyr BP. Infilling and coastal marsh development in the palaeo-Ningbo Bay occurred progressively after ca. 7.0 cal. kyr BP and are associated with the emergence of the Hemudu culture.

Conservative Style, Liberal Production: Hemudu’s Binary System for Maintaining its Scapular Shovel Tradition in the Southern Yangzi Delta, 7000–6000 BP

In the past two decades, archaeological studies of knowledge and skill transmission for pottery and lithic production in preindustrial societies have significantly improved our understanding of how technological traditions were transmitted and how the transmission processes influenced technological persistence and changes. However, case studies of craft transmission for osseous technology are rare despite their equal importance to pottery and lithic industries in preindustrial societies. Our research fills the gap by examining early Hemudu Culture’s (7000–6000 BP) scapular implements in the southern Yangzi Delta to understand the linkage between learning and maintaining the scapular shovel tradition in Hemudu’s socio-economic context. We first traced the history of scapular tools to the precedent Kuahuqiao Culture (8200–7000 BP), then used published experimental results to identify the product traits pertinent to craft learning and infer Hemudu scapular shovel blades’ learning and production patterns. Hemudu scapular shovels had a unique, complicated hafting style and an evidential raw material preference for old water buffalo scapulae. However, the blades’ morphological details and technical solutions varied significantly. In addition, most finished products display manufacturing mistakes resulting from crafters’ lacking skills, experience, and intervention. Practice pieces are rare compared to finished and used products. Although additional evidence implies that practice might have been more common than the studied sample suggested, it was carried out with less-than-ideal bones and insufficient for developing technical competency. We argue that the Hemudu societal norms for a scapular shovel applied only to the highly visible aspects of the implement. The shaft and ligatures could reduce the visibility of many manufacturing flaws on the shovel blade to reach the desired visual effect of the shovel. The shovel blades were made by household crafters emulating from an artifact or a memorized template but had insufficient training and practice in manufacturing. Communities of practice were minimal to nonexistent among the shovel makers; alternative mechanisms to maintain the technical norms or hold a high product standard were also lacking. Therefore, we concluded that the scapular shovels were less important as a technical implementation than a visual communicator of social identity. The binary system of conformist style and material preference mixed with loose quality control in the shovel blade production reveals that social conformity and the associated learning pattern are circumstantial and fluid even for a community’s iconic implement. Further research with other artifact types in Yangzi Delta would help shed light on whether similar learning patterns were applied besides the creation of scapular shovels.

Conservation of the Important Agricultural Heritage Systems in the Economically Developed Area:Experiences, Problems and Solutions—A Case Study of Zhejiang Province

Zhejiang Province, located in the Yangtze River Delta region, is representative of China′s economically developed areas. It enjoys superior natural conditions and a long history of agriculture, and is a comprehensive agricultural area with integrated development of agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and fishery. It has nurtured the farming culture represented by Hemudu culture and Liangzhu culture, which have given rise to numerous precious Agricultural Heritage Systems. At present, Zhejiang Province has three of the world's Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS) and 12 China Nationally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (China-NIAHS), so it not only has the largest number of heritages in China, but it has also attained remarkable achievements in heritage conservation. Taking Zhejiang Province as an example in combination with the rural revitalization strategy, this paper summarizes the achievements in the protection of Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (IAHS) in Zhejiang Province during the past 15 years from the aspects of increasing farmers' income, cultural Inheritance and industrial upgrading, as well as the conservation experiences in government promotion, community initiative, enterprise participation, technology driving and social linkage. Further, in view of the problems that exist in the current heritage protection，such as imperfect management of heritage sites, low participation of community residents, lack of special protection funds, and imperfect provincial management system，the following countermeasures and suggestions are put forward: (1) Improve the management mechanism for the conservation and development of Agricultural Heritage Systems; (2) Develop regional public branding of agricultural products in Agricultural Heritage System sites; (3) Increase the Agricultural Heritage System science education as well as cultural and creative product development; (4) Carry out the evaluation and recognition of IAHS at the provincial level; and (5) Provide substantial support and input to the conservation and utilization of IAHS. This study can provide some guidance for the conservation of IAHS in Zhejiang Province and it provides important reference for IAHS in the economically developed areas in China.

Holocene geomorphological evolution and the Neolithic occupation in South Hangzhou Bay, China

Well-known for its intensive land-sea interactions and the brilliant Neolithic Cultures, the South Hangzhou Bay (SHB) of eastern China has been the focus of early agricultural rise in adaptation to coastal environmental change. In this study, geological records from sediment cores were integrated with archaeological findings in SHB to establish the linkage between coastal geomorphological processes and Neolithic occupation since the Holocene. It showed that the Holocene geomorphological evolution of SHB was inherited from the south wing of the Late Pleistocene Qiantang incised valley. During ca.10,000–7600 cal yr BP, the paleo-incised valley was inundated and infilled by marine transgressive deposits, forming an estuary. Then coastal progradation started and gradually formed the periphery of SHB. Noticeably, freshwater wetlands firstly occurred at the apex of SHB, enabling foragers to settle down and fostering the Kuahuqiao Culture and rice exploitation (7800–7400 cal yr BP). In the semi-closed Yaojiang Valley (YJV), east of SHB, alluvial plain developed after 7800–7600 cal yr BP with coastal progradation, providing a habitat to favor the early arrivals and later became the centre of the Hemudu Culture (7000–5000 cal yr BP). Meanwhile, the Neolithic sites sporadically occurred off the YJV due to the existing inundation. The coastal progradation slowed down ca.5000–2500 cal yr BP, in association with decreased sedimentation rates. In the last 2500 years, the Shaoxing Plain and the Cixi Plain of SHB showed rapid progradation resulting from increasing sediment input and intensive reclamation. The diverse geomorphological processes of SHB were modulated by the combination of Holocene sea-level changes, sediment input and the inherited local topography. The Neolithic migrations were in phase with landscape transformations and gradual formation of coastal plain since the Mid-Holocene, facilitating the Neolithic subsistence transition from hunting-gathering to rice farming and fostering the brilliant Neolithic cultural sequence in SHB.

Paleoenvironmental Evolution and Human Activities at the Hejia Site on the Ningshao Coastal Plain in Eastern China

The eastern China coastal plain is an ideal area for studying the human–environment interaction during the Neolithic period as there are multiple Neolithic sites in this area. Located in the Ningshao Coastal Plain of the south bank of Hangzhou Bay in eastern China, the Hejia Site is part of the late Hemudu Culture sites and includes the late Hemudu Culture, the Liangzhu Culture, and the Qianshanyang Culture. Based on palynology, charcoal, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and magnetic susceptibility (χ), combined with accelerator mass spectrometry 14C dating and analysis of the archaeological cultural layers, we explored the paleoenvironmental evolution and human activities at the Hejia Site. 1) Pollen records suggest that the vegetation type was evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved mixed forest during the Middle Holocene. Cr/Cu and low-frequency magnetic susceptibility (χlf) reveal that the climate underwent through warm and wet (Hemudu Culture Period IV)–cool and dry (Liangzhu Culture Period)–warm and wet (Qianshanyang Culture Period) periods. 2) During the Middle Holocene, the intensity of human activities, related to the transformation of the natural environment, increased obviously. The increasing Poaceae pollen (>37 μm) indicates that the ability of prehistoric humans in managing crop fields gradually increased from the late Hemudu Culture Period to the Liangzhu Culture Period. The charcoal concentration results suggest that the occurrence of high-intensity fire events during the late Hemudu Culture Period might be caused by the slash-and-burn operation, while those that occurred during the middle Liangzhu Culture Period might be caused by the increasing fire demand owing to the greater ancestors’ lives and production activities in the Liangzhu Culture Period.

Mid-Holocene environmental change and human response at the Neolithic Wuguishan site in the Ningbo coastal lowland of East China

Coastal wetlands provided a favorable settling site for Neolithic people because of their highly exploitable biomass, but were vulnerable to marine hazards such as coastal flooding. The Chinese Hemudu culture persisted for ~2000 years (7200–5300 cal. year BP) in the Ningbo coastal lowland of East China. This study explores the Hemudu people’s survival strategy using sedimentological and chronological records, and organic and acetic-acid-leachable alkaline-earth (Ca, Sr, and Ba) chemistry on a well-dated profile from the coastal Wuguishan site in the Ningbo Plain. Analyses of alkaline-earth elements in surficial sediments collected from present-day alluvial plain, tidal river, and saltmarsh/tidal flat environments in the Ningbo Plain were also undertaken to explain sedimentary environmental changes and their linkage to Hemudu activity at the Wuguishan site. Results indicate high sediment acetic-acid-leachable Ca and Sr contents with high Sr/Ba ratios, and high sediment total inorganic carbon contents at the site during 6300–6000 cal. year BP, which coincided with a marine incursion at the nearby Neolithic Yushan site. However, the increasing sediment total organic carbon contents and decreasing δ13C values suggest that the Wuguishan site evolved from an upper tidal flat to a saltmarsh environment, attracting settlement by the prehistoric Hemudu people after ~6200 cal. year BP. Sr and Ca contents and Sr/Ba ratios decreased after ~6000 cal. year BP, indicating that the site developed into a low-salinity marsh in the supratidal environment after rapid accumulation caused by a storm event at ~6020 cal. year BP. Furthermore, the high Sr and Ba contents in the layers of Hemudu Culture Period III indicate the Hemudu people’s consumption of seafood and their adaption strategy for living in the vulnerable coastal wetland.

Early to middle Holocene rice cultivation in response to coastal environmental transitions along the South Hangzhou Bay of eastern China

South Hangzhou Bay (SHB) in eastern China is one of the regions where agriculture began in the early Holocene. To better understand how farming-based societies developed in this region, we examined pollen, charcoal, foraminifera and grain size information of a well-dated sediment core (YJ1503) in the Yaojiang Valley (YJV). Pollen assemblages show that before 8600 cal yr BP, Pinus, Quercus, Juglans and Pterocarya woodlands were dominant. During ca.8600–8400 cal yr BP, abundant foraminifera suggest a transient marine incursion. Although the former woodland species re-established during 8400–7600 cal yr BP, freshwater algae and dinoflagellates indicate a transition to brackish environments. Two peaks of charcoal at around 8200 and 7800 cal yr BP, are possible early signs of human occupation that pre-dated the Hemudu Culture. After 7600 cal yr BP, an increase of salt-tolerant herbs including Chenopodiaceae, Cyperaceae and Poaceae (<35 μm) and a decrease of dinoflagellate and foraminifera assemblages, imply a reduction in saline influence. Freshwater wetlands established around 6600 cal yr BP as indicated by increasing Typha and diminishing Chenopodiaceae pollen. This coincided with a sharp decline in Pinus pollen, marked increases of Poaceae pollen and a rise in charcoal suggesting more activity of human communities. Rice cultivation is confirmed by archaeological findings from this interval, with two distinctive periods at ca. 6600–6300 and 5500–5200 cal yr BP. The initial coastal land development started as early as 7800–7600 cal yr BP in the YJV, which was concurrent with that happened at the apex of SHB where the Kuahuqiao Culture originated, but rice farming trajectory at these two places differed. In the Kuahuqiao area, low salinity coastal settings developed, freshened by the discharge of the Qiantang River,and this area would have been especially suitable for agriculture. In contrast, in the YJV, early rice cultivation was possibly hampered by longer episodes of brackish intrusion during time of lower discharge of the Yaojiang River until a freshwater environment prevailed after ca. 7000 cal yr BP.

Study on Strength and Permeability of Silt Soils Improving by Tung Oil and Sticky Rice Juice

Tianluoshan site (5000∼2500 BC), which belongs to the Hemudu culture, has suffered damages from the hydraulic effect like other Chinese earthen sites in moist circumstance. Tung oil and sticky rice juice, as Chinese traditional building materials, were chosen as the additives in this study. Tung oil has the property of good waterproofness, fast dry‐up, and quick film‐forming by oxidation. Sticky rice juice has the advantage of high glutinousness, good tenacity, and low expandability. The study is to figure out the best performing mixture of tung oil and sticky rice juice to decrease the permeability of soil and increase its strength to facilitate excavations at archeological sites enlarging the display of layers of cultures. Meanwhile, the color of the site soil after reinforcement must be maintained for a long time. From the direct shear tests and the falling head test of 9 specimens mixed in different mass ratios, it was confirmed that the optimal mass ratio of the tung oil, the sticky rice juice, and the soil was 5 : 10 : 85. The treated soil specimen of the optimal mass ratio had the largest increment of shearing strength. The self‐standing height of the vertical soil wall increases correspondingly from 2.63 m to 6.18 m, which could enlarge the step height when excavating a deep earthen site and extend the display height at the protection stage. The treated soil at the optimal mass ratio also showed the largest decrement of permeability coefficient from 1.257 × 10−5 cm/s of the untreated soil to 1.627 × 10−6 cm/s, which could reduce the hydraulic effect to the soil. The microstructures of the 9 specimens in different mass ratios were observed by SEM. The results showed that the glutinousness of sticky rice juice could cohere soil particles together, and the tung oil could then form oxidation film wrapping around the particle groups. In order to meet the aesthetic requirements of earthen sites conservation, the surface color contrast tests were used to measure the color change induced by the two additives. The surface contrast tests showed that the treated soil at the optimal mass ratio had the minimum variation of the surface, which could satisfy the basic requirements of earthen sites protection.

Cultural response to Middle Holocene sea‐level fluctuations in eastern China: a multi‐proxy approach

The Middle Holocene period witnessed significant environmental and cultural transitions regarding the deceleration of sea‐level rise and the emergence of early agriculture, which profoundly moulded human–environment interactions in coastal regions. The Hemudu Culture (7000–5000 cal. a BP) is primarily distributed in eastern China coastal plains and marks a milestone in the origin of rice agriculture, and thus serves as an ideal case for examining these dramatic transitions. However, most existing studies have only focused on one particular aspect of the interactions amongst cultural evolution, subsistence strategies and sea‐level fluctuations in the Yaojiang Valley, and comprehensive understanding of cultural responses to Middle Holocene sea‐level fluctuations across the Ningshao Plain remains ambiguous. In this multi‐proxy study, pollen, phytolith and diatom remains from a high‐resolution profile of the Xiawangdu site (Hangzhou Bay, eastern China), along with a systematic collection of archaeological sites and radiocarbon dates for the Hemudu and Liangzhu cultures, were employed to assess human adaptation to the coastal environment. Coinciding with the cultural interruption between 6200 and 5600 cal. a BP, induced by Middle Holocene sea‐level transgression, Hemudu Culture diffused from the Yaojiang Valley northward to the Zhoushan Islands and southward to the Ningbo Plain, e.g. the Xiawangdu site. The regional ecological environment has experienced an evolutionary sequence from marine transgression (6200–5600 cal. a BP), to coastal lagoon (5600–5300 cal. a BP), through to freshwater wetland (5300–4300 cal. a BP). Settlements of pile dwellings and terraces were constructed to adapt to the hydrological transition from coastal lagoon to freshwater wetland around 5300 cal. a BP. In addition, evidence of both rice phytoliths and Poaceae pollen suggests that rice had already been domesticated by 5600 cal. a BP. Thus, the dispersal, settlement and subsistence of Hemudu Culture in the coastal lowlands of eastern China were largely dependent upon sea‐level fluctuations.

The changes of hydrological environment recorded in the section of Tianluoshan Site in Zhejiang Province

The Tianluoshan Site of Yuyao City in Zhejiang Province is a typical Neolithic site with a complete preservation of the Hemudu culture (ca. 7–5 ka). This culture is well-known for its important role in studies on early rice domestication. Studying samples from the Tianluoshan Site provides a good opportunity to understand regional paleoenvironmental changes and their impact on Neolithic settlement. In this study, 263 cm samples were obtained from the T005W profile in the Tianluoshan Site Museum. The profile samples were subjected to lithologic stratigraphic description, accelerated mass spectrometry (AMS)14C dating, high-resolution X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry, elemental scanning (2 mm/sample), diatom (20 cm/sample) and particle size analysis (2 cm/sample). The paleoenvironmental changes reflected by this profile could be divided into three stages based on multi-proxy analysis. (1) In the first stage (263–211 cm, about 7.0–6.5 cal ka BP), or the first and second cultural periods of Hemudu, the cultural layer was stacked and mixed with high contents of sand, gravel, and pottery pieces, thereby showing obvious disturbance from human activities. The diatom assemblage was dominated by aerophilous species, such as Hantzschia amphioxys , which live in shallow swamp. These findings indicated that this period was dominated mainly by a freshwater swamp environment. The geomorphic condition provided Neolithic people with a suitable environment to colonize and develop rice cultivation. (2) In the second stage (211–28 cm, around 4.2–4.0 cal ka BP), the layer had a thickness of approximately 180 cm. However, five AMS 14C dates from this stage were between ca. 4.2 and 4.0 cal ka BP, and the lithology of these overlying strata were inconsistent with the cultural layer underneath. As such, a hiatus existed between the two stages. The lithological feature of this stage mainly consisted of a parallel layer with a couplet of interbedded clay silt and white-gray sand layer, which represented deposition under hydrostatic conditions after flooding. This part also contained multiple yellow oxide layers, possibly indicating transient exposure. The intensity of Ca between 211 and 166 cm was low, but this value increased rapidly above 166 cm and stabilized at a higher level than that of the first period. The dominant diatom assemblage changed from a freshwater group ( H. amphioxys ) at the bottom of this part to a marine and brackish group (e.g., Cyclotella striata var. striata and Actionptychus undulates ). In this period, the rapid deposition of flooding events likely occurred as initiated by heavy precipitation (211–166 cm), which was indicated by low Ca and freshwater aerophilous diatom assemblage. Afterward, multiple storm surges resulted in sedimentation (166–50 cm) with marine-brackish characteristics. (3) In the third stage (28–0 cm, no date), the layer was characterized by a mixture of brown clay, silt, sand, and gravel with low contents of water, iron, and manganese oxide spots. Ca was weak, and clay content was high. This period was mainly dominated by freshwater epiphytic diatom species, such as Pinnularia vividis and Navicula cuspidate , and affected by modern farming. This study revealed the background of the hydrological environment during the first and second cultural periods of the Tianluoshan Site and the flooding events around 4.2–4.0 cal ka BP, which were essential for the understanding of the environmental background of Neolithic people and the extreme regional events in the Tianluoshan Site. The stratigraphic deposits of different sections in the site varied because of the influence of microtopography. Therefore, studies on the paleoenvironment of the Tianluoshan Site should involve a systematic analysis of multiple sections and cores around this site.

Characteristics of clay minerals in sediments of Hemudu area, Zhejiang, China in Holocene and their environmental significance

ABSTRACT The Ningshao Plain experienced sea-level fluctuation and climate change in the Holocene and gave birth to a Neolithic Civilization, the Hemudu Culture (about 5000 BC). Using XRD method, this paper studied the clay mineralogy of sediments in core HMD-1301 from Hemudu Site area in Ningshao Plain. Results show that the clay mineral assemblages in all samples are quite consistent. They are dominated by illite (about 57%) and smectite (about 26%), and a small amount of kaolinite (about 6%) and chlorite (about 9%). In addition, illite, chlorite, and kaolinite are originated mainly from eolian loesses. Smectite is resulted mainly from chemical weathering of local volcanic rocks outcropped. Illite crystallinity indicates the climatic characteristics of the source region, and illite chemistry index reflects the climate nature of the sedimentary area. It is our understanding that water medium properties in a sedimentary environment affect clay mineral assemblage and the distribution, based on which were cognized the Holocene transgression-regression events in the Hemudu Site area. These mineral indices are well comparable with geochemical indicators in identifying the transgression-regression events. We believe that these events affected the ancient civilization of the ancient residential communities at the time. ©2019 China Geology Editorial Office.

Scapulae for shovels: Does raw material choice reflect technological ease and low cost in production?

Earth-working spades were crafted from bone, stone, and wood in preindustrial societies. In the early Hemudu culture (7000-6000 BP) in eastern China, bone, particularly wild water buffalo scapulae, was preferred for crafting spades to modify the margins of wetlands for cultivation and occupation. Experimental and ethnographic research show that earth properties in the area adequately explains why wooden spades were less common; however, preference for bone spades over stone spades requires explanations beyond techno-functions during use. This paper identifies potential factors during the manufacturing procedure that might have encouraged the development and persistence of the scapular spade tradition. Replication experiments reconstructed the manufacturing procedure of the Hemudu scapular spade in comparison to that of a groundstone equivalent. The results showed that the manufacture knowledge was sophisticated for bone as well as for stone. However, the adequate level of know-how for successful production was lower for bone. Surprisingly, the costs in time and manufacturing tools for crafting a good enough bone tool were higher than those for a stone counterpart. In fact, the manufacture of bone tools involved the use of advanced groundstone tools. Overall, the Hemudu tool producers appear to have made their technological choices based on traditional conformity as well as resistance to motor skill adjustment rather than comprehensive cost-benefit assessment. The persistence of the scapular spade tradition led to increased investments into sophisticated modifications to cope with increasingly arduous earth-working tasks and likely led to increased investment into raw material procurement when bone raw materials became scarce. The results also suggest that technological ease and manufacturing costs in tool production should be evaluated carefully within the behavioral contexts, while taking into account that implements crafted from a variety of raw materials were employed in manufacturing the tool and that the costs and benefits in production are not equally perceivable to decision makers.

Foraminiferal evidence for Holocene environmental transitions in the Yaojiang Valley, south Hangzhou Bay, eastern China, and its significance for Neolithic occupations

The transition from a marine-influenced environment to a coastal plain setting during the Early to Middle Holocene was crucial for early human occupation along the eastern China coast. Here, detailed foraminiferal analyses were completed for two sediment cores (YJ1505 and YJ1508) retrieved from the Yaojiang Valley (YJV) along the southern Hangzhou Bay coast of eastern China. Brief environmental changes in the YJV during the Early-Middle Holocene were recovered on the basis of radiocarbon chronology. The assemblages and Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) results of the foraminifera of both cores indicated that the YJV was evidently under a marine influence from 9200 to 7900 cal yr BP; prior to that, it was a fluvial incised valley. The increasing trends in shallow marine foraminifera and the planktonic/benthic foraminifera (P/B) ratio showed that a transgressive period possibly occurred in the valley ca. 9200–7900 cal yr BP, and their following decreases suggested that a rapid regression process occurred thereafter. The disappearance of foraminifera and formation of a peaty layer in core YJ1505 ca. 7600–6500 cal yr BP implied a brief environmental transition to a limnetic wetland setting in the valley centre, which would have been attractive to early human settlers. The disappearance of foraminifera in core YJ1508 at the valley's eastern entrance suggested that most areas of the valley were located far from marine influence after ca. 6250 cal yr BP. Then, the limnetic wetland setting transitioned into a coastal plain environment, attracting more people to the valley. Such a transition in the YJV would have provided more opportunities for ancient people and possibly catalysed the development of the Hemudu culture (HC) for approximately two millennia.

Raw material preferences for scapular tools: Evaluating water buffalo age bias in the early Hemudu culture, China

AbstractOur research on scapular earth‐working implements from the early Hemudu culture (7000–6000 bp) in China reveals prehistoric raw material selection in bone tool manufacture, specifically in regard to animal age. Although the scapula normally would not be considered for distinguishing among adult age classes, the maturity and thickness of the bone were an important consideration for its technological performance.Statistical analysis of the width and rugosity level of the scapular neck show that scapulae from older adult wild buffalo was strongly preferred for crafting earth‐working implements. This raw material was less commonly available to tool makers in comparison with the bones of younger animals. In order to conserve the scapulae of old buffalo for tool production, the Hemudu people likely took these heavy bones from kill sites. They seldom transported scapulae from younger animals; such raw material was rarely used, and presumably only when the desirable material was unavailable.Our approaches for reconstructing buffalo mortality patterns are based on the development of the scapular bone. In addition to water buffalo and cattle, the approach is applicable to other ungulate scapulae that have been transformed into artefacts (tools and oracle bones) in prehistoric and historic cultures. This attempt at testing for age bias in scapular raw material selection can further stimulate methodological development to reveal activities surrounding bone acquisition in preindustrial societies.

Early to Middle Holocene sea level fluctuation, coastal progradation and the Neolithic occupation in the Yaojiang Valley of southern Hangzhou Bay, Eastern China

The Yaojiang Valley (YJV) of southern Hangzhou Bay was the birthplace of the well-known Hemudu Culture (HC), one of the representatives of Neolithic civilization in eastern China. To explore the magnitude of natural environmental effects on the HC trajectory, the palaeo-embayment setting of the YJV was studied in detail for the first time in terms of 3D Holocene strata supported by a series of new radiocarbon-dated cores. The results indicated that the local relative sea level rose rapidly during the Early Holocene in the YJV, reached its maximum flooding surface ca. 7900 cal yr BP, and then remained stable ca. 7900-7600 cal yr BP. Thereupon, an estuary stretching inland was first formed by marine transgression, and then, it was transformed to an alluvial-coastal plain by regressive progradation. The alluvial plain was initiated in the foothills and then spread towards the valley centre after sea level stabilization ca. 7600 cal yr BP. Accompanying these natural environmental changes, the earliest arrivals of foragers in the valley occurred no later than ca. 7000 cal yr BP. They engaged in rice farming and fostered the HC for approximately two millennia from ca. 7000-5000 cal yr BP as more lands developed from coastal progradation. The rise and development of the HC are closely associated with the sea level-induced landscape changes in the YJV in the Early-Middle Holocene, but the enigmatic exodus of the HC people after ca. 5000 cal yr BP is still contentious and possibly linked with the rapid waterlogging and deterioration of this setting in such a low-lying coastal plain as well as with associated social reasons.

Middle-Holocene sea-level fluctuations interrupted the developing Hemudu culture in the lower Yangtze River, China

The eastern coastal zone of China is densely populated and widely recognized as a center of rice domestication, which has undergone dramatic sea-level fluctuation during the Holocene epoch. Hemudu culture is distributed mainly in the eastern coastal area and was once presumed as a mature agricultural economy based on rice, making it an ideal case for examining the remarkable human-environment interaction in the Lower Yangtze River. Though numerous studies have been conducted on the cultural evolution, ecological environment, and rice domestication of Hemudu culture, the impact of sea-level fluctuation on human settlement and food production remains controversial. In this study, we report high-resolution pollen, phytolith, and diatom records, and accurately measured elevation from the Yushan site, which is the closest site of Hemudu culture to the modern coastline. Based on the data gathered, we suggest that the Hemudu culture and subsequent Liangzhu culture developed in the context of regression and were interrupted by two transgressions that occurred during 6300-5600 BP and 5000-4500 BP. The regional ecological environment of the Yushan site alternated between intertidal mudflat and freshwater wetlands induced by sea-level fluctuations in the mid-late Holocene. Though rice was cultivated in the wetland as early as 6700 BP, this cultivation was subsequently discontinued due to the transgression; thus, full domestication of rice did not occur until 5600 BP in this region. Comprehensive analysis of multiple proxies in this study promote the understanding of the relationship between environmental evolution, cultural interruption, and rice domestication.

Pollen evidence to interpret the history of rice farming at the Hemudu site on the Ningshao coast, eastern China

A 3.12-m sediment core named HMD was retrieved near the Hemudu archaeological site to decode the rice farming history and its connection to the environment change at the site since mid-Holocene. Microfossil results together with core lithology indicated a brackish supra-tidal flat deposition prior to ca. 6500 years ago, on which the Hemudu people settled. A desalinized environment indicated by abundant aquatic herbs and declined dinoflagellate at ca. 6500–6200 cal yr BP would have favored human occupation and rice farming assisted by clearing and firing. This then followed by a significant increase of Pinus pollen and fern spores, suggesting enhanced fluvial processes possibly under a cooler climate setting, which might have constrained the living space for the ancestors and weakened the rice farming activities at the site. Rice farming returned at ca. 5500–5200 cal yr BP with an ameliorated climate and suitable coastal environment as evidenced by increases of Poaceae pollen, charcoal remains and the emergence of more sites at the late Hemudu Culture stage. From ca. 5200 cal yr BP, fern spores and freshwater algae increased, implying an expanded waterbody probably associated with the migration of the Yaojiang River that made the Hemudu site no longer favorable for human occupation.