Helmand River Research Articles

Prerequisites for Increasing Contradictions between Iran and Afghanistan over the Use of Transboundary Water Resources of the Helmand River

Prerequisites for Increasing Contradictions between Iran and Afghanistan over the Use of Transboundary Water Resources of the Helmand River

METEOROLOGICAL DROUGHT RISK ASSESSMENT USING SPI NUMERICAL MODEL: A CASE STUDY OF HELMAND RIVER BASIN, AFGHANISTAN

Meteorological droughts, which result from insufficient precipitation, can cause significant economic damage. While preventing meteorological droughts is impossible, their harmful effects can be reduced through close monitoring. This study aims to evaluate the meteorological drought in the Helmand River Basin using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) model. The hydrometeorological data used for this analysis were collected from the Ministry of Energy and Water (MEW) in Afghanistan. The precipitation data collected from MEW covers a 40-year period from 1979 to 2021. The SPI analysis of precipitation shows that 1990, 1991, and 1992 were moderately wet, while 1982, 1983, 1995-1998, 2005, 2014, and 2015 were nearly normal. However, moderately dry conditions were observed in 2000, 2001, 2018, and 2021. Among the sampled stations, Waras and Gardez consistently had low drought levels, while Tarnak, Shila-i-charkha, and Khwabgah stations experienced moderate-level drought. Meanwhile, Lashkargah and Adraskan stations exhibited relatively high levels of drought. In conclusion, this research on the HRB, using the SPI method, has provided valuable knowledge for understanding drought dynamics in the region. The findings underscore the importance of conducting region-specific analyses, the necessity of implementing sustainable water management strategies, and the global significance of addressing drought as a pressing environmental challenge.

THE HELMAND RIVER WATER DISPUTE BETWEEN IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND, POTENTIAL RISKS AND PROPOSED SOLUTIONS

The dispute over the allocation of water in the Helmand River has been ongoing between Iran and Afghanistan for many years. Despite various steps taken and the agreement reached in 1973, the issue remains unresolved, causing tensions between the two countries, especially during drought periods. The prepared study aims to provide answers to why river water is so important and why the issue has not yet been resolved through historical and strategic analyses. However, beyond this, the main focus and therefore the purpose of this study is to identify the potential risks that may arise if the problem remains unresolved and to propose solutions. In this context, the study attempts to provide some concrete suggestions through the benefit-sharing theory categorized into four headings by Claudia W. Sadoff and David Grey, thereby offering an alternative perspective for a solution. This study argues that if the water issue persists, certain developments may emerge in both countries, but particularly in Iran, which could affect both internal and regional balances.

Emotionality in Transboundary Water: A Case Study of Helmand River.

While a substantial body of literature perceives rationality as the only path for negotiations over the use of the transboundary shared watercourse, recent scholarship has unveiled the role of emotion in decision-making processes over the use of the shared water. This research aims to challenge the conventional approach-rationality-by exploring affective dynamics of the riparian nations of the Helmand River (shared between upstream Afghanistan and downstream Iran) and how decisions over the use of the shared Helmand River are ingrained in the emotional dispositions of the riparian nations. Taking an integrated approach combining emotional political ecology and neoclassical realism, this research unravels the intricate emotional dynamics of the riparian nations to the flow of the Helmand River. The staggering increase in water withdrawal-both surface and groundwater resources- coupled with the population growth, and adverse effects of climate changes has stimulated the negative emotional dispositions of the borderland communities- the sufferings of farming communities due to lack of access to water-resulting in water conflict escalation in the Helmand River Basin. Finally, it is asserted that negotiations over the use of Helmand River are considered to be ill-equipped unless emotionality and rationality-a pluralistic approach- are equally weighed or gauged in water allocation and utilization by the co-riparian nations.

Maintaining status quo or realizing transformation in transboundary water conflicts? The power–interests–identity nexus in the Helmand river basin

ABSTRACT This paper contributes to the critical hydropolitics literature by introducing the power–interests–identity nexus framework and addresses how it shapes decisions and (re)actions to transform or maintain water conflicts. The framework is investigated using the Helmand/Hirmand river basin, shared by Afghanistan and Iran. It elucidates which factors led to the transformation of Iran–Afghanistan water conflicts and the signing of the 1973 Treaty, as well as the influential factors that have contributed to its maintenance in the 2020s. The results demonstrate using the framework provides comprehensive insight by identifying the influential latent factors of transboundary water arrangements.

Dynamic Geomorphology of the Amu Darya Basin in Afghanistan: A Study of Physiography, Basin Erosion, and Channel Development

The morphological dynamics of rivers are motivated by way of a number of things, including floodplain sedimentation, channel migration, sediment transport, and hydrodynamics. A considerable information of the complicated dynamics of river structures is important to layout river initiatives which can be sustainable and environmentally conscious. Implementing thorough river control plans that include hydraulic infrastructure and ecological restoration projects is important to overcoming these boundaries. This solution will effectively manipulate competing needs for water resources whilst ensuring the preservation of the location's herbal heritage. In the cease, this study affords essential new understandings of the complex interactions between hydrological patterns, human hobby, and geological procedures within the Amu Darya Basin. The application of sustainable land control and water useful resource making plans in Afghanistan might be appreciably impacted with the aid of those findings. Afghanistan has a lot of freshwaters because the Hindu Kush Mountains receive a significant quantity of precipitation. An estimated 75 billion cubic meters of potential water resources, consisting of 57 billion cubic meters of surface water and 18 billion cubic meters of groundwater, are found in Afghanistan. The Amu Darya, Northern River Basin, Helmand River Basin, Harirud-Marghab River Basin, and Kabul River Basin make up the Indus River Basin, which provides around two-thirds of Afghanistan's freshwater resources. All of Afghanistan's rivers, with the exception of the Northern River, flow across international borders into neighboring countries. The distribution of water from the Amu Darya River was subject to limitations imposed by the USSR, which was previously known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The majority of the water is used mostly for farming. Protocol 566, formally ratified by the former USSR, allowed the transfer of water from the Amu Darya River to the four Central Asian Republics (CARs) of Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and the Kyrgyz Republic. By investigating the bodily functions of the basin, which includes land erosion and channel development, this looks at seeks to enhance our understanding of the landscape evolution of the basin. Our intention is to improve our information of the landforms, tectonic activity history, and the consequences of climate change inside the region by utilizing geological studies and facts from faraway sensing.

Fundamental Problems of Water Resources Management in the Helmand River Basin, Afghanistan

The closed hydrology and the geopolitical nature of the Helmand River basin in terms of leadership, management, and use of water resources have created serious threats to its integrity, environmental health, and human security in this river basin. The Helmand River basin, where about 8 million people live, includes about 49 percent of the soil and 11 percent of the water flow of this country. Agricultural sectors and related industries are the main drivers of the economy in this basin and due to the increasing need for food in the country and the region, the population shift towards cities, industrialization, and most importantly climate change and water shortage, competition between major water consumers in this basin is increasing. Despite the increasing number of studies on the water management of the Helmand River basin, no practical research carried out to strengthen and summarize the common conclusions and findings related to the fundamental problems facing the water resources management of this river basin. Therefore, in this article, to fill the aforementioned gap, all related documents, studies, and topics have been comprehensively reviewed and analyzed. To achieve this goal, the qualitative-analytical research method was used to analyze and find the key issues raised, and as a result, the basic problems facing the water resources management of this basin were investigated as much as possible. In the following, the necessary suggestions are also presented so that by implementing it, this country would be able to solve the existing problems by using its hydro political capacities and opportunities and it would also be placed at the center of the water interactions in the river basin, to provide a sustainable and all-round development of the country.

Flood Risk Assessment of the Middle Reach of the Helmand River, Afghanistan

The middle reach of the Helmand River is prone to floods, and flood hazard analysis is necessary to manage the flood risk. As the study site is a less-developed basin where available geographical and hydrological data are limited, we must utilize available limited data to conduct the flood hazard analysis. A frequency analysis of the annual peak flow rate was performed using available hydrological data for making representative flood hydrographs. A land-use map is derived by classifying recent Landsat images. Digital elevation model derived by Advanced Land Observing Satellite, roughness coefficient correlated with the land-use map, and the representative flood hydrographs are fed into hydraulic model HEC-RAS 2D. Flood inundation area, depth, and velocity for different flood return periods are estimated. Based on local hazard intensity and vulnerability, risk maps for evacuation and vulnerability of crops on the floodplain are obtained. Spatial flood risk characteristics differ at the upstream and downstream reaches because of distinct floodplain topography. Flood countermeasures for each reach are proposed based on the spatial characteristics of the flood risk. To provide risk information for residents within the region, the flood hazard, risk, and damage maps derived in this study are published as a web map application and a mobile native application.

Effect of Kamal Khan Dam on Afghanistan’s Economy and Environment

Afghanistan is a mountainous country and has about 75 billion cubic meters of fresh water, however, only 67% of its total population has access to drinking water, so the major objective behind constructing Dams is to fulfill the need of people for drinking water and irrigation of crops, which affect the economy of the country and also has effect on the environment directly. Kamal Khan Dam has been built on Helmand river in Chahar Borjak district of Nimroz Province under the consideration of Ab-Gardan (To turn the water flow) and the main objective of this study is to explore the effect of Kamal Khan Dam on the economic, agricultural and environmental aspects of the country. This is a qualitative research, and secondary data has been gathered from various credible and reliable sources to investigate the effect of Kamal Khan Dam on Afghanistan’s Economy and Environment. The results of the study signify that Kamal Khan Dam can generate (9000KW) of electricity per hour, control the water to a maximum level, has the capacity to irrigate 175,000 hectares of land and store 52 million cubic meters of fresh water. The dam is one of the most important projects of the country, which has a great impact on the economic, agricultural and environmental aspects of the country.

Sand dune migration and flux into the lower Helmand and Arghandab valleys

In the Helmand/Sistan basin in southwest Afghanistan, aeolian sediment movement impacts the environment, irrigation canals, agriculture, and fluvial systems. The migration of large sand dunes into the Helmand and Arghandab rivers has a significant impact on the water resources providing livelihood for over three million people. A first step toward mitigating these impacts is to better understand sand dune migration. In this study, dune celerity and flux into the fluvial system are measured using PlanetScope Visual Ortho Scene satellite imagery. Two different time periods were used to quantify flux in five study sites of dune fields along 100 km of the Helmand River and 150 km of the Arghandab and Dori rivers. Results show diverse sand dune celerities with the fastest barchan dune movement south of Zaranj city. Sand dune celerity on the Helmand River right bank in the direction of flow is estimated to vary between 6.2 m/year to 103.1 m/year. The highest unit flux values of 250 m3/m/year occur in the lower Helmand basin. Much lower dune celerity values between 0.2 m/year to 2.9 m/year are calculated for the dune field on the left bank of the Arghandab and Dori rivers. The study also identifies the sensitive locations on the right bank of Helmand River in lower Helmand that may be used to plan sand dune stabilization measures such as mulching and Haloxylon species plantation that have been extensively practiced in the region.

The Role of Data Sharing in Transboundary Waterways: The Case of the Helmand River Basin

The Role of Data Sharing in Transboundary Waterways: The Case of the Helmand River Basin

The Worst or the Best Treaty? Analysing the Equitable and Reasonable Utilization Principle in the Legal Arrangements of the Helmand River

AbstractAfter protracted conflicts, Afghanistan and Iran agreed on a treaty in 1973 to share the waters of the Helmand River. However, this legal arrangement became a source of controversy over its equitable and reasonable utilization principle. The 1973 Helmand River Water Treaty reflects a history of legal and political controversy and strongly contrasting views, with some labelling it the “worst” treaty and others the “best”. This paper scrutinizes the history of legal arrangements of the Helmand River within its underlying political context to search for evidence of the aforementioned equitable and reasonable utilization principle. The findings indicate that the 1973 Treaty provides a grey space for legality and illegality, being a greatly restricted instrument to uphold the principle of equity. Examination of the principle of equity in the 1973 Treaty contributes to developing constructive controversy over the Helmand River and offers valuable lessons for other international watercourses facing similar challenges.

Iran’s Regional Transnational Water Partnerships: Unclear Rules, Unstable Partnerships, and an Unsettled Future

Water resources are the most contentious, scarce, and contestable natural resources at any geographical scale. Where water resources cross international boundaries, additional uncertainties arise for access to and distribution of available water. Here, we examined three transnational water partnerships by focusing on Iran as a dryland country with a developing economy. Thus, Iran has a key interest in water policies and the development and governance of water resources. Within Iran’s regional context, we considered whether the country obtained a geopolitical advantage from three regional water partnerships, involving the Caspian Sea, the Helmand River, and the export of hydroelectricity. We used a global database and several years of Iranian newspaper articles to explore possible linkages between contemporary and historical challenges while looking at international laws and conventions. We highlighted (a) the transboundary Helmand River as the most unstable partnership; (b) the complexities of the relationships between the Caspian Sea’s beneficiaries, including Iran, in utilising its vast resources in an environment with unclear rules; and (c) the rainfall- and geopolitically dependent hydroelectricity exchange agreements with neighbouring countries. Although Iran pursued such international involvement through treaties and economic initiatives, its water-based geopolitical influence in the region remains constrained by domestic demand, hydrometeorological geography, and the involvement of major world powers.

Water-constrained green development framework based on economically-allocable water resources

Water as a main driver for sustainable development (SD) should be optimally allocated to different users to support economic, social, and environmental functions. Traditional approaches are not able to account for all the mentioned functions simultaneously, therefore a change in the allocation approaches is necessary. This paper proposes a new framework for inter-sectoral water allocation called “water-constrained green development” (WCGD) to better meet the SD goals. The framework optimally allocates economically-allocable water (EAW), which is the total available water resources left after subtracting the amount of water required for drinking, sanitation, and environment (DSE), to different job classes. It was tested in Sistan Region- a low-developed area in southeast of Iran- which stands on agriculture. In the recent years, because of water crisis, intensity of dust problem, lack of sustained occupation, and immigration, the region’s rate of population growth has been negative. Also, due to decrease of Helmand River inflow, Hamoun wetland, being the major source of food and shelter for the Sistan’s residents, has been degraded. Therefore, Sistan Region needs to take a new development route. The shares of occupation and gross domestic product (GDP) in the agricultural sector of Sistan are respectively 29.1 and 14.8%, whereas they are on average 1 and 7% in Iran. Application of the proposed framework in Sistan Region under three scenarios of available EAW resources showed that the optimal reallocation of water among 15 job classes can improve job availability and GDP of the region currently suffering from poor economy and employment conditions. Based on the optimal job pattern obtained, the share of GDP of Sistan’s agricultural sector drops to 7.1% while the shares of industrial and service sectors increase respectively from 9.7 and 75.4% to 13.7 and 79.2%, which are close to those of the country averages. Also, under the WCGD-based optimal solution, 68, 14, and 18% of people will respectively be employed in service, industry, and agriculture sectors. Additionally, the total available jobs and GDP will increase by 8.9 and 51.1%, respectively, leading to improved socio-economic well-being of the region’s people and protection of its environmental resources.

Assessment of the Trust Crisis between Upstream and Downstream States of the Helmand River Basin (1973–2022): A Half-Century of Optimism or Cynicism?

Assessment of the Trust Crisis between Upstream and Downstream States of the Helmand River Basin (1973–2022): A Half-Century of Optimism or Cynicism?

Evaluation of remotely sensed global evapotranspiration data from inland river basins

AbstractRemotely sensed (RS) evapotranspiration (ET) data sets have been widely evaluated and applied at regional scale. However, the research is relatively insufficient on inland basins. RS global ET data sets were evaluated in 19 major inland basins around the world in this study. Monthly ET was estimated by using water balance (ET_WB), as well as multi‐source precipitation and total water storage anomaly data sets from each basin. The main attributes of the ET changes were identified in each basin. The accuracy of 10 ET products was evaluated by monthly ET_WB series over the entire study region and at the basin scales. Results showed that precipitation changes were the main cause of ET changes in most basins (i.e., 11/19). The impacts of human activities, mainly because of increased irrigation diversion, dominated the ET changes in the five basins located in the western and northern regions of the Eurasian inland basin. Accurate estimated ET series in inland basins with a regular unimodal or U distribution of mean monthly ET were also obtained; this was not the case for basins with irregular seasonal ET variations. In general, ET products exhibited accurate monthly ET estimates in most inland basins, but their accuracy was reduced at the Helmand River, Iranian inland rivers, Qaidam, and Turpan Basins. All products tended to underestimate ET, except for the Penman–Monteith–Leuning product. Overall, the global land surface satellite and global land evaporation Amsterdam model products performed the best in inland basins, while the moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS; MOD16A2) and surface energy balance system (SEBS) products performed relatively poorly. In addition, all products except SEBS and MOD16A2 could capture the spatial ET distribution in inland basins, and the spatial correlation coefficient ranged between 0.83 and 0.93. In general, an ensemble of optimized ET products could improve the accuracy of simulated monthly ET and reduce the uncertainty of the simulated series over the entire study region and at the basin scales.

A framework for drought adaption under deep uncertainties: Application of Portfolio theory (Markowitz 2.0)

Hydrological uncertainty, climate change, and water infrastructure development upstream transboundary basins may affect the safe access to water resources downstream, making socioeconomic and biophysical subsystems vulnerable. Therefore, it is vital to apply decision-making approaches to reduce vulnerability, especially in arid and semi-arid basins. This study evaluated an adaptation framework to reduce vulnerability through optimal water allocation in drought-prone areas. This framework was implemented in an area dependent on upstream transboundary water (Helmand River Basin). An integrated system dynamics model was developed using socioeconomic and biophysical factors identified by the Füssel Vulnerability Framework. The climatic variables of the basin were simulated and predicted by the output of AOGCM models. The trend of upstream annual precipitation and temperature changes during the 2021–2050 period based on the RCP4.5 emission scenario was −2% and +1.9 C compared to those in the historical period, respectively. The results indicated the drought intensification due to a 13% decrease in future runoff (2050) compared to the base period, leading to a reduction in value-added agriculture (8%) and the population (31%). Therefore, the latest version of portfolio optimization called Markowitz 2.0 was used. In order to decide on potential long-term growth versus short-term loss, an efficient frontier was formed between the expected return and the conditional value at risk (CVaR) based on the Markowitz 2.0 model. According to the model results, the development of the industrial sector as an approach with moderate (reasonable) risk could increase financial return by 43% and allocation to the environmental sector by 2.3 times. Finally, prioritizing the environmental sector was a high-risk approach with high returns that increased efficiency by 45%. The results showed that the proposed framework could help decision-makers, based on their risk-taking level, activate and develop decisions on water resource allocation and water-dependent productive sectors on the basis of efficient frontiers.

Meteorological Drought Analysis for Helmand River Basin, Afghanistan

This study evaluates drought at Lashkargah, Farah, Adraskan, and Gardandiwal stations in Helmand River Basin (HRB) in Afghanistan to determine appropriate drought indices for the basin. Thirty seven years of monthly recorded precipitation data from 1979 to 2015 are employed with different drought index (DI) methods which include the Standardized Precipitation Index (Normal-SPI, Log-SPI, and Gamma-SPI), the Percent of Normal (PN), and the Deciles. All the methods are applied to the annual long term precipitation data. The log-SPI and the gamma-SPI predict extreme drought conditions, whereas, the normal-SPI determines wet and less dry conditions. The results emphasize that the PN and the Deciles methods predict more drought years in comparison to the SPI methods. The Deciles method shows longer period of extreme and severe drought than other methods. The five methods indicate various drought intensities in 1985, 1987, 1994, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, and 2004 at all the stations. The extreme drought condition in 2001 at all the stations confirms to the recorded drought reports for the same region. It is noted that since the log-SPI and the gamma-SPI capture the historical extreme and severe drought periods successfully, these are recommended as the drought monitoring indices for Helmand River Basin.

The Chronology of Helmand Changes in Seistan

The Helmand River has three distinct beds in Seistan: the North Channel, the Trākun River, and the Sanā Rūd. Over the ages, the Helmand has undergone repeated changes and shifted from one bed to the other. This article reconstructs the Helmand channel alterations based on fieldwork observations, existing archeological investigation reports, and the writings of ancient geographers. It seeks to identify ancient cities, locate ancient weirs and main canals, and establish the chronology of changes of the river channel. It shows that the river flowed in the channel of the Sanā Rūd during the period c.3200-c.1800 BC, in the channel of the Trākun River during the periods c.1800-c.1300 BC, c.200 BC-AD c.400, AD c.1100-c.1700 and finally in the North Channel during c.1300-c.200 BC, AD c.400-c.1100, AD c.1700-present.

Lessons learnt from basin management in Iran and the world (case study Helmand, Danube and Colorado basins)

In recent years, river flow into Sistan dam changed because of construction of dams and expansion of irrigation areas in the upper Helmand basin. Planning for construction of more dams and heightening of Kajaki dam in Helmand basin shall intensify the severity of water shortage of Sistan dam and Hamun Lake. Sistan dam located at downstream of Helmand river on Sistan branch of the Helmand river, power shifts in Afghanistan and expansion of irrigation areas in upstream basins and absence of an integrated authority/management in the basin are the major problems. Political nature of international protocols for management of the basin is another problem for water resource management in the region. Above mentioned issues forced the local water authorities to solve the problems using natural and man-made reservoirs and interlink canals, called Chah-Nimeh dams. This study focused on comparison of Helmand, Danube and Colorado river basins to find possible acts in Helmand basin.