HELLO Packets Research Articles

Improved MPR Selection Algorithm-Based WS-OLSR Routing Protocol

Vehicle Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) have become a viable technology to improve traffic flow and safety on the roads. Due to its effectiveness and scalability, the Wingsuit Search-based Optimised Link State Routing Protocol (WS-OLSR) is frequently used for data distribution in VANETs. However, the selection of MultiPoint Relays (MPRs) plays a pivotal role in WS-OLSR's performance. This paper presents an improved MPR selection algorithm tailored to WS-OLSR, designed to enhance the overall routing efficiency and reduce overhead. The analysis found that the current OLSR protocol has problems such as redundancy of HELLO and TC message packets or failure to update routing information in time, so a WSOLSR routing protocol based on improved-MPR selection algorithm was proposed. Firstly, factors such as node mobility and link changes are comprehensively considered to reflect network topology changes, and the broadcast cycle of node HELLO messages is controlled through topology changes. Secondly, a new MPR selection algorithm is proposed, considering link stability issues and nodes. Finally, evaluate its effectiveness in terms of packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, and control message overhead. Simulation results demonstrate the superior performance of our improved MR selection algorithm when compared to traditional approaches.

Recommendations Based QoS Trust Aggregation and Routing in Mobile Adhoc Networks

In mobile adhoc netwotk (MANET), a node’s quality of service (QoS) trust represents how much it is reliable in quality. QoS trust of a node is computed based on its multiple quality parameters and it is an interesting and challenging area in MANETs. In this work, QoS trust is evaluated by taking into consideration quality parameters like node residual energy, bandwidth and mobility. The proposed method “Recommendations Based QoS Trust Aggregation and Routing in Mobile Adhoc Networks-QTAR” is a frame work. Where the trust is established through four phases like QoS trust computation, aggregation, propagation and routing. The Dempster Shafer Theory (DST) is used for aggregation of trust recommendations. In the network, trust information is propagated through HELLO packets. Each node stores the QoS trust information of other nodes in the form of trust matrices. We applied matrix algebra operations on trust matrices for route establishment from source to destination. The time and space complexity of proposed method is discussed theoretically. The simulation is conducted for the varying of node velocity and network size, where the proposed method shown considerable improvement over existing protocols.

Blockchain-Empowered Trusted Networking for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in the B5G Era

An unmanned aerial vehicle ad hoc network (UAANET) is an information sensing, analyzing, and transmitting network formed by multiple coordinated and collaborating UAVs. It is an emerging networking technology with a broad market prospect, but faces the problems of high dynamic topology and lack of trust. To address these issues, this article proposes a blockchain-em-powered trusted networking framework for UAANET, as well as the corresponding network architecture, protocol stack, key control signaling, and algorithms. To be more specific, blockchain is designed as a layer of distributed peer-to-peer security running on top of the physical UAANET. Three types of control signaling are designed, namely HELLO packet, topology control packet, and consensus packet. A max-min stable routing algorithm with three-dimensional link duration and a multipoint-relay-driven delegated Byzantine fault tolerance consensus mechanism are proposed for trusted networking of UAANET. The involved technical background and challenges are also detailed. These works together provide good references for scale deployment of UAANET in the near future.

Prevention of Hello Flood Attack in IoT using combination of Deep Learning with Improved Rider Optimization Algorithm

IoT are prone to vulnerabilities as a result of a lack of centralized management, dynamic topologies, and predefined boundary. There are diverse attacks that affect the performance of IoT network. Flooding attack is a DoS attack that brings down the network by flooding with a huge count of HELLO packets, routed to a destination that does not exist. The main intent of this paper is to develop a novel robust model for detecting and preventing HELLO flooding attacks using optimized deep learning approach. In this proposed research model, the steps like Cluster head selection, k-paths generation, HELLO flooding attack detection and prevention, and optimal shortest path selection are employed. Once after the random cluster head selection and k-paths generation, few Route Discovery Frequency Vectors like Route Discover Time and Inter Route Discovery Time of each node is determined for detecting the HELLO flooding attack. Initially, a threshold function is used to match with the computed Received Signal Strength (RSS) of each node to detect the stranger node. Further, the HELLO flood attack is confirmed by the optimized Deep Belief Network (DBN), which is removed from the network subsequently. Once after securing the network, the shortest route path selection is done optimally by the improved meta-heuristic algorithm. Here, improved Rider Optimization Algorithm (ROA) termed as Bypass-Linked Attacker Update-based ROA (BAU-ROA) is used for performing the optimal DBN as well as optimal shortest path selection. The objective constraints like node trust, distance between the nodes, delay of transmission, and packet loss ratio are considered for performing the optimal shortest path selection. Finally, the experimental evaluation of various performance measures validates the fruitful performance of the proposed model. Based on the analysis, the const function of proposed BAU-ROA is 28.1% superior to D-DHOA, 34.1% superior to DHOA, and 39.2% superior to WOA at 5th iteration. When considering the 10th iteration, the developed BAU-ROA is 12.2% superior to DHOA, 19.3% superior to D-DHOA, 28.1% superior to ROA, and 39.2% superior to WOA.

Reinforcement Learning Based Mobility Adaptive Routing for Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks

Vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs) is drawing more and more attentions in intelligent transportation system to reduce road accidents and assist safe driving. However, due to the high mobility and uneven distribution of vehicles in VANETs, multi-hops communication between the vehicles is still particularly challenging. Considering the distinctive characteristics of VANETs, in this paper, an adaptive routing protocol based on reinforcement learning (ARPRL) is proposed. Through distributed Q-Learning algorithm, ARPRL constantly learns and obtains the fresh network link status proactively with the periodic HELLO packets in the form of Q table update. Therefore, ARPRL's dynamic adaptability to network changes is improved. Novel Q value update functions which take into account the vehicle mobility related information are designed to reinforce the Q values of wireless links by exchange of HELLO packets between neighbor vehicles. In order to avoid the routing loops caused in Q learning process, the HELLO packet structure is redesigned. In addition, reactive routing probe strategy is applied in the process of learning to speed up the convergence of Q learning. Finally, the feedback from the MAC layer is used to further improve the adaptation of Q learning to the VANETs environment. Through simulation experiment result, we show that ARPRL performs better than existing protocols in the form of average packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay and number hops of route path while network overhead remains within acceptable ranges.

Attacks and Secure Geographic Routing In Wireless Sensor Networks

Due to open network nature of wireless sensor networks make them highly vulnerable to a variety of security attacks and easy target for adversaries, which may capture these nodes, analyze and easily insert fake route information. Wireless sensor network is an emerging, cost effective and unsupervised solution for collecting this information from the physical world and sending this information back to centralized authority for further processing. GRPW (Geographic Routing in connected wireless sensor networks based on Multiple Sinks) is one of the basic routing protocols used for Supporting Mobile Sinks in Wireless Sensor Networks. GRPW, a geographical routing protocol for wireless sensor networks, is based on an architecture partitioned by logical levels, on the other hand based on a multipoint relaying flooding technique to reduce the number of topology broadcast. GRPW-MuS uses periodic HELLO packets to neighbor detection. The wormhole attack can form a serious threat in wireless sensor networks, especially against many wireless sensor networks routing protocols and location-based wireless security systems. Here, a trust model to handle this attack in GRPW is provided called GRPW-MuS-s. Using OMNET++ simulation and the MiXiM framework, results show that GRPW-MuS-s protocol only has very small false positives for wormhole detection during the neighbor discovery process (less than GRPW). The average energy usage at each node for GRPW-MuS-s protocol during the neighbor discovery and route discovery is very low than GRPW-MuS, which is much lower than the available energy at each node. The cost analysis shows that GRPW-MuS-s protocol only needs small memory usage at each node, which is suitable for the sensor network.

An Efficient Time Slot Acquisition on the Hybrid TDMA/CSMA Multichannel MAC in VANETs

The multichannel MACs increase the throughput and reduce the collision probability compared to the single-channel MACs. However, coordination of multiple nodes across multichannels is nontrivial. Recently, a multichannel MAC, called HER-MAC, uses both TDMA and CSMA schemes to improve reliability in broadcasting safety messages and efficiency in service channel utilization. Nevertheless, HER-MAC suffers a high collision probability for a large number of vehicle nodes. In this letter, we propose a hybrid TDMA/CSMA multichannel MAC protocol for VANETs that allows efficient broadcasting of messages and increases throughput on the control channel. Furthermore, our proposed MAC eliminates unnecessary control packet such as HELLO and SWITCH packets in HER-MAC. Analysis and simulation results show that the proposed MAC can provide faster time slot acquisition on the control channel than HER-MAC.

English

ABSTRACT:In many wireless sensor network (WSN) applications uses hierarchical routing protocol for routing sensed data to the sink, among them LEACH is the first and most widely used hierarchical distributed clustering protocol in WSN. Security is important in wireless sensor networks as they are prone to various network threats and intrusion. In LEACH, Nodes decides to join a cluster head based on Received Signal Strength (RSS) of receiving HELLO packets from CHs making it vulnerable to HELLO Flood attack. Detection of HELLO Flood attack can be done either cryptographic approach which are less suitable in terms of memory and battery power or non-cryptographic which involves sending the test packet for detection which increases communication overhead as the energy required for transmission of the packet is far more than the energy required for processing/calculation. Based on these facts a non-cryptographic and cryptographic solution for detection HELLO Flood attack is proposed in this paper in which by considering RSS and distance calculation and by comparing both test packet approach is done hence the number of times the test packet is transmitted is greatly reduced and providing security by using location dependent key(LDK) management scheme where it involves loading random set of keys to the nodes prior to deployment, and also LDK doesn’t require any knowledge of node deployment, eventually provides better connectivity and containment of node compromise.

Robust On-Demand Multipath Routing with Dynamic Path Upgrade for Delay-Sensitive Data over Ad Hoc Networks

Node mobility in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) causes frequent route breakages and intermittent link stability. In this paper, we introduce a robust routing scheme, known as ad hoc on-demand multipath distance vector with dynamic path update (AOMDV-DPU), for delay-sensitive data transmission over MANET. The proposed scheme improves the AOMDV scheme by incorporating the following features: (i) a routing metric based on the combination of minimum hops and received signal strength indicator (RSSI) for discovery of reliable routes; (ii) alocal path updatemechanism which strengthens the route, reduces the route breakage frequency, and increases the route longevity; (iii) akeep alivemechanism for secondary route maintenance which enables smooth switching between routes and reduces the route discovery frequency; (iv) apacket salvagingscheme to improve packet delivery in the event of a route breakage; and (v) low HELLO packet overhead. The simulations are carried out in ns-2 for varying node speeds, number of sources, and traffic load conditions. Our AOMDV-DPU scheme achieves significantly higher throughput, lower delay, routing overhead, and route discovery frequency and latency compared to AOMDV. For H.264 compressed video traffic, AOMDV-DPU scheme achieves 3 dB or higher PSNR gain over AOMDV at both low and high node speeds.

Enhanced AODV routing protocol for Bluetooth scatternet

Bluetooth is one of the most widespread technologies for personal area networks that allow portable devices to form multi-hop Bluetooth ad hoc networks, so called scatternets. Routing is one of the challenges in scatternets because of its impact on the performance of the network. It should focus on reducing the power consumption in the network because most of the nodes are battery-operated portable devices. In this paper, we propose a routing protocol for Bluetooth scatternets that customizes the Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol by making it power-aware and suitable for scatternets. It enhances the AODV flooding mechanism by excluding all non-bridge slaves from taking apart in the AODV route discovery process. In addition, it improves the AODV route discovery phase by considering the hop count, the predicated node’s power, and the average traffic intensity for each node as metrics for best route selection. By removing HELLO packets, our protocol reduces the control packets overhead and the power consumption in network devices. Simulation results show that the proposed protocol achieved considerable improvements over other enhanced AODV protocols by increasing the data delivery ratio by 10.78%, reducing the average end-to-end delay by 8.11%, and reducing the average energy consumption by 7.92%.

Defending against wormhole attack in OLSR

OLSR (optimal link state routing) is one of the four basic routing protocols used in mobile ad hoc Networks by the MANET working group of IETF (Internet engineering task force). OLSR, a proactive routing protocol, is based on a multipoint relaying flooding technique to reduce the number of topology broadcast. OLSR uses periodic HELLO packets to neighbor detection. As introduced in Reference [1], the wormhole attack can form a serious threat in wireless Networks, especially against many ad hoc Network routing protocols and location-based wireless security systems. Here, a trust model to handle this attack in OLSR is provided and simulated in NS2.

SDC: A Scalable Approach to Collect Data in Wireless Sensor Networks

In this paper, we present Scalable Data Collection (SDC) protocol, a tree-based protocol for collecting data over multi-hop, wireless sensor networks. The design of the protocol aims to satisfy the requirements of sensor networks that every sensor transmits sensed data to a sink node periodically or spontaneously. The sink nodes construct the tree by broadcasting a HELLO packet to discover the child nodes. The sensor receiving this packet decides an appropriate parent to which it will attach, it then broadcasts the HELLO packet to discover its child nodes. Based on this process, the tree is quickly created without flooding of any routing packets. SDC avoids periodic updating of routing information but the tree will be reconstructed upon node failures or adding of new nodes. The states required on each sensor are constant and independent of network size, thereby SDC scales better than the existing protocols. Moreover, each sensor can make forwarding decisions regardless of the knowledge on geographical information. We evaluate the performance of SDC by using the ns-2 simulator and comparing with Directed Diffusion, DSR, AODV, and OLSR. The simulation results demonstrate that SDC achieves much higher delivery ratio and lower delay as well as scalability in various scenarios.

Layered simulation of Bridge protocols for Multi-LAN Ethernet Communication Systems

We describe the adoption of simulation techniques to test the operation of a new Self-Stabilizing Bridge Protocol [4; 24] and compare its perfonnance with that of an existing industry standard. Specifically, the experiments relate to the comparison of the IEEE 802.1 (D) Spanning Tree Algorithm [25; 26] as the industry standard, with a newly proposed Loop-Detect Packet based Self-Stabilizing Bridge Protocol. The language chosen for this work was Pascal Plus, which is an extension of Standard Pascal providing concurrent programming structures such as Processes and Monitors. The role of simulation in Cornmunications and Networks is highlighted and previous work surveyed. The problem under investigation relates to the use of devices, called Bridges, to connect two or more Local Area Networks (LANS) to form a larger interconnected system termed a Multi-LAN. Over recent years, reliability of communications systems has become an overwhelming concern to network managers. In order to increase reliability at the multi-LAN scale, it is usual to install parallel Bridges, thereby providing alternate paths between neighboring LANs. The inherent problem with such an approach is that it may lead to,more than one Bridge forwarding the same traffic to and from the adjacent LANs which they connect. This can cause duplicate packets, unnecessary traffic loading and, in some cases infinite looping of packets which severely degrade the performance of the communications channel they traverse. The IEEE 802.1 committee have defined an algorithm to address these problems, known as the Spanning Tree Algorithm. Although the underlying physical topology may be an arbitrary mesh, this scheme prunes the topology to a logical topology with no cycles. It does so by electing a single ROOT Bridge for the entire system, and subsequently electing a single Designated Bridge (active) for each LAN, with all other parallel Bridges assigned Backup status (passive). After the algorithm has converged, the Root is responsible for maintaining the logical tree, by periodically transmitting HELLO packets on all of its ports, which traverse the logical tree with the assistance of Designated Bridges. On receiving such HELLO packets, the Designated Bridges assume the logical topology is intact and forward the respective HELLO packets on their otihvard ports. However, if a Designated Bridge does not receive an HELLO packet within the defined timeout, it must assurne that the logical connectivity has been broken, and takes steps to regain status-quo. From a detailed investigation of the Spanning Tree Algorithm, several weaknesses in its design were discovered including the fact that it does not automatically make any attempt to limit the scope of maintenance traffic to those areas with cycles, and it is based on a centralized philosophy and as such, the failure of the Root forces the remaining Bridges to recornpute their slates from scratch. A new algorithm was designed by the Authors to overcome most of the problems with the existing standard. In particular, having pruned the physical tapology to a logical tree by use of special Loop Detect packets, the new algorithm places the responsibility of maintaining the logical connecfivity on the Backup (off) Bridges. The consequcence of this feature is that the Bridges concerned with maintaining the logical topology can fail, withont any dismption to the existing connectivity, as would be the case in the IEEE standard. By use of additional facilities the new algorithm also restricts the scope of maintenance traffic to those areas with cycles. Given the difficulties in using existing networks for protocol development (or any other software development for that matter), we opted for simulation in Pascal Plus as a means to test and validate the operation of our new protocol. To do this we adopted a layered approach to model conceptualization, which attempted to reflect the ISO OSI Reference Model. We present the simulation results and conclusions supporting the use of modelling techniques in the constantly evolving area of communications and networks which should assist others in assessing the practical issues involved.