Heian Period Research Articles

A Comparative Study of the Divorce Systems of the Tang Dynasty and Japan at the same Era

The system of divorce, which is a very important part of the marriage system, also formed a complete system and developed to its peak in the feudal era of the Tang Dynasty. In the process of economic, cultural and political exchanges between the Tang Dynasty and other countries, the divorce system of the late Asuka Period, the Nara Period and the early Heian Period in Japan, which corresponded to the Tang Dynasty, had a certain influence. This paper mainly combines the historical material "Tang Laws and Regulations" and Japanese "Pension Laws", "Household Marriage Laws" and other laws to carry out theoretical research, literature research method, and comparative research method. In the process of transplantation of Chinese law, it also reflects the different social ideologies of two different countries for the divorce system, and it produces a certain difference for the maintenance of harmonious family relations, social stability, and the sense of well-being of the divorce system to different.

The utilization of wood samples from xylarium in historical wooden statues: improving the separation accuracy non-destructive measurement for using several algorithms

There are numerous wooden historical artifacts in Kyoto and other parts of Japan, including Buddhist statues or Shinto deities. The identification of wood species in these historical artifact is desirable for both repair and maintenance purposes. The most common method of identifying wood species involves examining samples taken from the artifacts. However, intentional sampling from old cultural artifacts is prohibited in Japan. As a result, we attempted to determine the wood species of old statues non-destructively using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). In this article, we developed the softwood and hardwood separation model using NIRS to compare the prediction accuracy for few algorithms. The model was created based on wood samples stored in the xylarium of the Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute (TWTw). We then applied this model to old Buddhist statues in order to classify them as either softwood or hardwood. These Buddhist statues were housed in Nazenji temple and are believed to have been carved during the Heian period (8th–12th century). For the near-infrared (NIR) measurements, we collected diffuse reflectance spectra from TWTw sample and Buddhist statues using same spectrometer. Initially, we used the soft independent modeling of class analogy method (SIMCA), partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS_DA), and support vector machine to analyze the NIR spectra obtained from the TWTw wood samples. Subsequently, we applied the NIR spectra obtained from several Buddhist statues in Nazenji temple to the aforementioned separation model and determined whether spectra data were classified as the softwood or hardwood. Finally, wood specimens detached naturally from the Buddhist statues over time were observed under microscopic analysis to identify the wood species. As comparing the prediction accuracy of few algorithms, SIMCA had a poor result, but PLS_DA had a good result. PLS_DA had better discrimination because it performed calculations to improve regression from both explanatory variables and objective variables.

Study on the Formation of Japanese Kaniarare Textiles

Kaniarare pattern (窠に霰文), a typical and representative design among the Japanese Yusoku patterns (有職文樣), becomes stylized at least during the 11th to 12th centuries in the late Heian period. The design of kaniarare pattern became stylized at least during the 11th to 12th centuries in the late Heian period, while the earliest known stylized kaniarare-mon silk fabric could be dated from late 13th century during the Kamakura period. Although the study of the trade and cultural exchanges between Song and Liao Dynasties and late Heian to early Kamakura Japan became more distinctive in the past decades, the transmission of silk art and relative impact on Japanese silk design have not been fully studied. By comparing with a few groups of extant and unearthed silk relics and connecting their relevancy, this article attempts to analyze the possible influence of silk design from the Liao to Song dynasties on Japanese silk design then and later.

Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of pitch-accent systems based on accentual class merger: a new method applied to Japanese dialects

Abstract Unlike studies of the evolutionary relationship between languages, the dialect-level variation within a language has seldom been studied within the framework of a phylogenetic tree, because frequent lexical borrowing muddles the evidence of shared ancestry. The phonological history of Japanese is an exceptional case study where the phenomenon called accentual class merger enables the phylogenetic analysis of dialectal pitch-accent systems in a way that is not subject to borrowing. However, previous studies have lacked statistical analysis and failed to evaluate the relative credence of alternative hypotheses. Here we developed a novel substitution model that describes the mutation of pitch-accent systems driven by accentual class merger and integrated the model into the framework of Bayesian phylogenetic inference with geographical diffusion. Applying the method to data on the pitch-accent variation in modern Japanese dialects and historical documents collected from literature, we reconstructed the evolutionary history and spatial diffusion of pitch-accent systems. Our result supports the monophyly of each of three groups of pitch-accent systems in conventional categorization, namely Tokyo type, Keihan type, and N-kei (N-pattern) type of Kyushu, whereas the monophyly of the Tokyo type has been highly controversial in previous studies. The divergence time of the mainland pitch-accent systems was estimated to be from mid-Kofun to early Heian period. Also, it is suggested that the modern Kyoto dialect did not inherit its accent patterns from Bumoki but from an unrecorded lineage which survived from the Muromachi period. Analyses on geographical diffusion suggest that the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of all the taxa and that of Keihan type were located in or around the Kinki region, whereas the MRCA of N-kei type was located in northern to central Kyushu. The geographical location of the MRCA of Tokyo type remains unclear, but the Kinki and Kanto regions are the most plausible candidates.

Tasteful Messages from Heian Japan

Is love sweet? In contemporary English, that may often be the case, but in classical Japanese poetry (waka), love had no flavor. In fact, foods, eating, and drinking hardly appear in waka of the tenth and eleventh centuries. This essay examines a number of poems featuring food by Ōe no Masahira and Akazome Emon, two esteemed writers of the Heian period (794–1185 CE). First scrutinizing the unusual poems from their courtship, the essay then examines all of Akazome’s verses featuring food. Taking these eighteen poems from her poetry collection, I assert that in Heian poetry, foods appear only sporadically, but when they do, their gustatory tastes are disregarded in favor of cultivating aesthetic taste tied to their appearances, anecdotal associations, and verbal play.

Authority over Death: Two Tales Related to the Lord of Mount Tai in Konjaku Monogatarishū

Tales of Times Now Past (Konjaku Monogatarishū 今昔物語集) is a Japanese setsuwa (anecdotes) collection dating from the early twelfth century. Originally contained in 31 volumes, it includes more than one thousand systematically arranged tales from India, China, and Japan. Despite the fact that Daoism was rejected by the Japanese imperial court as an organized religion, Daoist philosophies and practical systems found their ways into Japan, having a significant and profound influence over Japanese esoteric cosmology and folk beliefs. This article takes the Lord of Mount Tai (CN: Taishan Fujun; JP: Taizan Fukun 泰山府君) as the focus and examines two pertinent stories in Tales of Times Now Past. By placing the texts in a broader historical, religious, and comparative Japan–China perspective, I examine the reshaping of Daoist elements and traditional Chinese philosophical principles in these two stories and thus demonstrate how the Daoist fragments transmitted to Japan were transformed into an integral part of the orthodox structure by the time of the late Heian period in the pursuit of a more organized form of government.

Heian Period Developments in Japanese Esoteric Buddhist Practice: The Case of the Fugen Enmei Ritual and its Various Honzons

The present paper addresses esoteric Buddhist rituals in Japan, with special focus on the changes that happened in its practice in the first couple of centuries after its initial arrival to the country. Although esotericism originated in India, it was the brief spotlight it gained in China during the Tang Dynasty (especially in the 8th century) that determined its transmission to Japan in the beginning of the 9th century, where it spread rapidly and reached a particular culmination within the same time period, i.e., the Heian Period (794 to 1185/1192). On the one hand, the Shingon school, established by the monk Kūkai (774-835), was essentially the first time the esoteric Buddhist teachings were systematised, and although the founder’s person and teachings are still very much revered to this day, changes have begun right after his death in 835. On the other hand, the Tendai school, a rival for imperial recognition and support and also established (or rather introduced) in the beginning of the 9th century by the monk Saichō (767-822, a contemporary of Kūkai) included some esoteric teachings, and with the practices introduced by later Tendai monks, such as Ennin (794-864) or Enchin (814-891), this school cultivated esoteric practices that are still extant in Japan today. Firstly, the meaning and usage of the honzon (an icon of a deity) in esoteric Buddhist rituals is clarified in the paper, while later the evolution of two specific icons that were used during the Fugen Enmei rituals of both the Shingon and Tendai schools is introduced, with explanations as to why there are two different types of iconographies extant for the same kind of ritual. The paper contributes to the study of those esoteric practices that were created and developed in a locally recognized Buddhist milieu that served specific purposes in Japan and are found in no other Buddhist cultures in Asia.

The Early Evolution of Buddhism in Japan: The Phenomenon of Local Draping Before the Heian Period

The relationship between Gods and Buddhas is the key to a comprehensive understanding of Japanese religious history. By considering the phenomenon of God-Buddhist co-practice from the perspectives of mutual recognition of different bodies and mutual construction of the same body, the local evolutionary process of Japanese Buddhism can be systematically sorted out and analyzed, and the important role of civilizational exchange and mutual appreciation in the development of civilization or culture can be revealed.

Sakura imagery and cosmetics: Colour symbolism, aesthetics and cultural significance in an Australian context

This article examines contemporary representations of sakura (cherry blossom) in cosmetics marketing. Since the Heian period, sakura has been loved and regarded as having tangible and metaphorical significance in Japan. Imagery of sakura is rich in ambiguity and has a complex history as evident in its use in the militaristic promotion of heroism, especially related to the Second World War. However, in recent decades, sakura imagery has proliferated across a range of popular culture both inside and out of Japan. In this article we focus on the circulation and meanings of sakura imagery accessible and appropriated in Australia with specific attention to cosmetics. Sakura offers not only aesthetic pleasure but also potentially some health benefits. Our discussion draws on data from surveys and interviews with participants in Australia about their perspectives of sakura aesthetics related to colour symbolism. This is accompanied by close analysis of colour symbolism in recent perfume, skincare and cosmetic marketing, branding and packaging which use sakura imagery. We argue that, using the complex symbolism associated with the wide colour spectrum, sakura imagery has now been refashioned as a versatile promotional tool in the global market, as exemplified by the brand engagement of sakura-themed cosmetics.

Akutagawa Ryunosuke's Repertoire in the Short Story "Rashomon"

An author's creative process cannot be separated from the storehouse of knowledge obtained from different results of reading, hearing, or observing of the events around him. This store of knowledge, when juxtaposed with the concept introduced by Wolfgang Iser in his book The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response (1987), can be called a Repertoire. Shortly, repertoire can be understood as the basis for creating a work, as the background to make the foreground the author aims at through his work. This process also applies to Akutagawa Ryuunosuke's short story entitled Rashomon as the foreground of Konjakumonogatari, the 29th volume of the 18th story. This research aims to describe how the social, historical, and cultural writings by Akutagawa Ryunosuke in the Rashomon and compared with Konjakumonogatari, using the Aesthetic Repertoire theory proposed by Wolfgang Iser. The process through which, among others, grouping the data to be analyzed is related to social, historical, and cultural norms of Japanese society. Next, compare the data to see the relationship between Rashomon and Konjakumonogatari. The results showed (1) There are similarities between social, historical, and cultural similarities between literature and reality, (2) Social norms indicate the life of the Japanese lower class in the Heian period called Genin, (3) Historical norms show the dark conditions that Japanese people went through in the Heian era, because of the many problems that occurred at that time, and (4) Cultural Norms show the efforts made by Japanese people in the Heian period to survive despite hurting others.

일본 메이지유신(明治維新) 이전의 지적조사(地籍調査)에 대한 고찰

The purpose of the study to understand the cadastral survey and ownership management of land prior to the Meiji period. The temporal scope of this study is limited to the Nara period from 710 to 1868. A cadastral investigation is a survey conducted mainly by municipalities to survey the land owner, parcel number, and purpose of land use and to measure the location and area of ​​the boundary for each parcel. However, there was no term for cadastral research at that time, but the same applies in terms of content. As a result of the study, manors and land subject to public authority in the late Heian period are divided into two types: manors, which are private lands controlled by aristocrats or temples, and public domains, which are controlled by public officials dispatched from the state. The manor and public land in the Kamakura period are changed by the invasion of the manor and public land by Jidu. And in the Muromachi period, the power of the nobles and monks who ruled the manor and the government officials dispatched from the state, who ruled the territories, weakened, and disputes over land became more and more complicated. In Taehap Geomji, first, the person who cultivates the farmland became the owner of the land. Second, the people had to pay taxes according to the amount of agricultural production. Third, samurai and peasants were completely separated, and farmers were only obligated to pay taxes as ownership of farmland was recognized. After such a cadastral survey of Taehap, it is suggested that the development of small agriculture and the increase in agricultural productivity in Japan served as a great foundation for a smooth transition from medieval feudal society to modern society.

일본 메이지유신(明治維新) 이전의 지적조사(地籍調査)에 대한 고찰

The purpose of the study to understand the cadastral survey and ownership management of land prior to the Meiji period. The temporal scope of this study is limited to the Nara period from 710 to 1868. A cadastral investigation is a survey conducted mainly by municipalities to survey the land owner, parcel number, and purpose of land use and to measure the location and area of ​​the boundary for each parcel. However, there was no term for cadastral research at that time, but the same applies in terms of content. As a result of the study, manors and land subject to public authority in the late Heian period are divided into two types: manors, which are private lands controlled by aristocrats or temples, and public domains, which are controlled by public officials dispatched from the state. The manor and public land in the Kamakura period are changed by the invasion of the manor and public land by Jidu. And in the Muromachi period, the power of the nobles and monks who ruled the manor and the government officials dispatched from the state, who ruled the territories, weakened, and disputes over land became more and more complicated. In Taehap Geomji, first, the person who cultivates the farmland became the owner of the land. Second, the people had to pay taxes according to the amount of agricultural production. Third, samurai and peasants were completely separated, and farmers were only obligated to pay taxes as ownership of farmland was recognized. After such a cadastral survey of Taehap, it is suggested that the development of small agriculture and the increase in agricultural productivity in Japan served as a great foundation for a smooth transition from medieval feudal society to modern society.

La Chine, le Japon et l’« étoffe » de Perse

Abstract in English Pressing past the frameworks of the wa-kan (Japanese-Chinese) and sangoku (“the Three Kingdoms”), this essay explores a border-crossing “geopoetics” in order to espy distant “Persia” in the literary culture of classical Japan. In the “Picture Contest” midway through The Tale of Genji, an illustration supposedly set in far-off Persia is praised not for its exoticism but rather for its adroit synthesis of Japanese and Chinese pictorial elements. It turns out that the Persia made by Japanese persons around the beginning of the eleventh century is connected to the intermixing of all things Chinese and Japanese, especially when it comes to poetry. In other words, the stuff of this artificial Occident is laced through with these twin poetries from Asia’s easternmost extremities. We can see this interlacing in vernacular fictions, such as The Tale of the Tree Hollow (Utsubo monogatari), in which one of the protagonists is a Persian mage reincarnated in Japan obliged to recite passages in bilingual alternation, night by night, before the monarch. Elsewhere, academicians of Chinese “letters” exhibit their boundless knowledge of this “Far West” in such bilingual works as The New Man’yōshū (Shinsen man’yōshū) and The New Collection of Resonant Verse (Shinsen rōeishū). The latter presents itself as a learned sequel to The Collection of Japanese and Chinese Resonant Verse (Wakan rōeishū)—an emblem of the Heian period’s bilingual poetics which, in its turn, attracted the attention of monk-commentators who used the anthology to develop their Indo-Buddhist cosmo-cartography, including Persia. Persia, therefore, gets woven out of this mix of poetry in Chinese and Japanese—a mixed arrangement that enjoys an unparalleled display in the scrolls of the Collection of Resonant Verse. In its turn, The Collection itself begins to appear like an altogether “Persian” kind of terrain : a virtual terrain which belongs neither to China nor to Japan, but which is nonetheless made out of both.

The Battle of Ichi no Tani Its Influences on the Genpei War and Japanese Culture

In year 1184, the Battle of Ichi no Tani broke out between the two major samurai clans in late Heian Period, the Minamoto Clan and the Taira Clan. In this paper, the impact of this battle is examined from the aspects of its military significance in the Genpei War and its influences on the Japanese Culture. The author would argue that from these two aspects, the influence of the Battle of Ichi no Tani could be shown on its heavy blow to the Taira Clan, leading to their final defeat and the heroic figures like Minamoto no Yoshitsune and Taira no Atsumori who fought in it. Through studying this topic, a better understanding towards the military history of medieval Japan and the Japanese culture of sympathy towards the failed side can be developed.

The English translation of “yomachi” in The Tale of Genji: The Jōbō City system and weights and measures system

ABSTRACT This article discusses the interpretation of “yomachi” in the English translation of The Tale of Genji. “Yomachi” describes the size of the house Rokujōin, one of the houses in the story. The construction of Rokujō-in is completed in “the 21st chapter, Otome” volume. To make it easier to visualize the house’s vastness, English translations of books are heavily annotated, but the English translation and the notes show a transition and are not consistent. Heian-kyō was laid out in a grid pattern based on what was called the Jōbō City System. In the Jōbō City System, “yomachi” is a block unit. The “yomachi” that Arthur Waley used in his English-language edition was based on the Japanese Weights and Measurement Law at the time he translated it, likely because the status of Japanese units, which had changed over time, had not been communicated. This story, established in the Heian period, is written in hiragana, and the word is read as “yomachi.” It is important to clearly understand the size of the house Rokujō-in, built by the protagonist, Genji, because the story tells of the actual rituals and events that took place in the aristocratic society at that time.

히카루겐지의 출가와 『겐지 모노가타리』의 리얼리티

This study focuses on Hikarugenji’s consciousness in relation to entering Buddhist priesthood and its inner reality. Moreover, it sheds light on 『Genjimonogatari』 from the point of view of realization of reality. Regarding Hikarugenji’s entry into Buddhist priesthood, many discussions have focused on the issue related to the theme of the original 『Genjimonogatari』. However, I do not feel that the value judgment on Hikarugenji entering Buddhist priesthood is a decisive factor in interpreting the work. Rather, it is noteworthy that the rumors he puts forward as an excuse for avoiding entering the Buddhist priesthood, that is, the attitude of being conscious of others, reflect the realistic life of the Heian period aristocrats as social beings. In addition, the fact that the desire to share the same fate by carrying on his obsession with Murasakinoue to the afterlife becomes the driving force behind Hikarugenji’s ascetic practices, reveals the limits of human beings who cannot escape their obsession. In my opinion, this guarantees the reality of the classic novel, 『Genjimonogatari』.

The Archaeology of Ancient Japanese Gardens

abstract: This article summarizes the results of archaeological research on some 20 Japanese garden sites dating from the fourth to twelfth centuries a.d., emphasizing the site plan, remains of structures, stone groupings, and ponds. Associated plant remains from five sites are tabulated and briefly discussed. I introduce some early Chinese and Korean antecedents and provide historical context. Gardens with rectangular ponds were introduced from the continent in the Asuka Period (a.d. 538–710). From the Nara Period (a.d. 710–794), garden making was naturalized in a Japanese asymetrical curving style in which structures were located away from the central axis. The gardens discussed here represent a small sample of the original gardens. They include two early examples of an adopted continental style (i.e., Uenomiya and Furumiya), a garden from an imperial palace site, gardens enclosing Heian Period shinden type architecture (raised residence with side wings) and its adapted Pure Land form, and a garden associated with the palace of a retired emperor. Plantings show a combination of flowering trees and shrubs, many introduced from the continent, combined with native deciduous and evergreen trees. Continental examples of gardens with rectangular ponds belong to royal palaces and were symbols of royal authority, as were the examples dated to the Asuka Period. In the Heian Period, state gardens such as Shinsen'en were used for state functions and required ample space and simple organization, while gardens sponsored by elite courtiers such as the Fujiwara show the expression of Buddhist belief. In the Toba Rikyū, built by retired emperors under a complex insei (retirement) system, imperial mausolea shared the landscape with mansions, Buddhist temples, and chapels. Groupings of stones, curving streams, dry landscapes, and low waterfalls probably all occurred as early as the Nara Period.

AESTHETIC PERCEPTION OF MIYABI (ELEGANCE) IN Y. KAWABATA'S NOVELS

Along with mono no aware, miyabi is an aesthetic sentiment that dominates the Heian period. Miyabi describes the elegant attitude and behavior between man and man, as well as between man and nature. Originating from Shinto, miyabi has subsequently become a significant concept of Japanese aesthetics. Miyabi percolated through Japanese literature over eras and was recorded in the compositions of Y. Kawataba – a writer who dedicated his life and literary career to preserving and promoting the traditional cultural values of Japan amidst the invasion of European and American civilization. In Y. Kawabata's works, miyabi was expressed through the passion of being able to care for, cherish and contemplate nature at its utmost richness; of finding in nature the joy and energy that healed the wounds of the soul; of appreciating objects-symbols for traditional culture; of love, generosity and tolerance towards people.

On the Body

On the Body

헤이안 문학에 보이는 여성의 이동 양상과 원형

In the literature of prose in the Heian period, there are many stories based on travel. At that time, it was impossible to take a trip that crossed over provinces without permission, and especially, the women's movement was extremely limited. However, in the literary works mostly describing women's movement, most of the contents are related to coming up to the capital from the bottom(province) to the top(Kyoto). For example, in case a woman accompanies her father or husband appointed as a local government official, the situation of returning to the capital is more intensively described than the look of retiring to the country. Also, the look of a woman who is going up to the capital after marrying to a man from the center and giving birth to a baby is handled in detail. This is contrasted with the scene that usually focuses on the scene from top toward bottom when a man is in the center. This is estimated to follow the contents of myth in which a man who comes down from top marries to a woman in the bottom, and the woman goes up to the top by following the man. Even though the work 『Taketori Monogatari』 is similar to other works in the aspect of intensively describing the story of a woman Kaguyahime who moves upwards(moon world) from the bottom (ground), it is creating the new-type of movement aspect as the one who comes down from the moon world to the ground is the woman, and the woman also goes up regardless of men.