Norms Of Hegemonic Masculinity Research Articles

Migrate to (not) be ‘gurus’: Unpacking workplace masculinity in China's tech sector

AbstractThrough an intersectional analysis of gender, class, and migration, this article reveals how a hegemonic culture of workplace masculinity, embodied by a group of ‘gurus,’ is constructed in China's tech companies. The guru masculinity is characterized by proactivity and aggressiveness at work, ‘putting work first’ and overwork, and the ability to navigate boundaryless careers and settle down in first‐tier cities. It translates hegemonic masculine norms of material success, enjoying urban life, and men's breadwinner position in contemporary China on the one hand, and responds to a labor regime of precarious employment relations and prevalent overwork norm on the other hand. The article contributes to the literature on hegemonic masculinity in work organizations by showcasing how a hegemonic masculinity in China's tech workplace is constructed at the conjuncture of hegemonic gender norms at a societal level and the distinct labor regime in the tech sector. It also reveals that many male workers fail to conform to this cultural ideal, experiencing masculine frustration rooted in the nature of the ‘workplace masculinity contest,’ uneven urban development, and the demanding labor regime. It thus opens further discussions on how men resist hegemonic gender norms and construct alternative masculinities.

Alcohol and masculinity within community sports clubs in Aotearoa New Zealand

ABSTRACT Traditionally, males have been more involved in community sports, and they also consume alcohol at higher rates compared to other genders in Aotearoa NZ. The present study drew on notions of gender and hegemonic masculinity to explore people's experiences of sports clubs, alcohol and masculinity. In-depth individual interviews were undertaken with 12 participants (10 males, 2 females, aged 23–56), who belonged to a range of sports clubs. Following transcription, the data were analysed thematically, and three key themes were identified: (1) pervasiveness: alcohol is everywhere; (2) masculine behaviours dominate; (3) feeling alienated. Findings reinforce how hegemonic masculinity and alcohol consumption remain pervasive within many community sports settings. This impacts on feelings of belonging and views on what constitutes appropriate behaviours. Those who do not belong to the dominant group, or conform to the status quo, are subordinated and formal hierarchies continue to favour dominant groups. Harmful behaviours linked with hegemonic masculinity were also exacerbated by alcohol consumption. Findings are considered in terms of how to change power dynamics and drinking practices perpetuated by hegemonic masculine norms to promote a more inclusive and safer space for all members of community sports clubs.

‘If you're a male primary teacher, there's a big “why are you doing that? What is wrong with you?”’ Gendered expectations of male primary teachers: The ‘double bind’

AbstractThe underrepresentation of men in non‐traditional fields of work is often attributed to essentialist gendered beliefs that associate such roles exclusively with women. This phenomenon is not limited to any specific country but is observed worldwide. Moreover, male teacher drop‐out rates remain a consistent issue. This article examines the detrimental impact of gendered expectations of masculinity on male primary teachers through interviews conducted with both male and female teachers in the UK. It argues that men in this occupation face a ‘double bind,’ being judged for conforming to hegemonic masculine norms while also facing judgement for deviating from them. All male teachers interviewed expressed feeling the pressure of gendered expectations, which primarily stem from one central misconception fuelled by traditional conceptions of gender; that the occupation is unsuitable for men. As a result, men who enter the profession encounter challenges not only related to their gender but also their sexuality and their sense of professional identity as teachers. Addressing the damaging role of gender beliefs is crucial in promoting the numerical representation of men in the teaching profession.

When worlds collide: The romantic relationship experiences of bisexual‐identifying Asian American men

AbstractRelationships, their processes, and outcomes are shaped by sociocultural norms and practices. The specialty of counseling psychology emphasizes the importance of a holistic understanding of the social context of lived experience as it affects health and well‐being. We used a queer paradigm and an intersectional approach to inquire about the romantic relationship experiences of 15 bisexual‐identifying Asian American men (BIAAM) who were at least 23 years old. In‐depth interviews were transcribed and analyzed using a constructivist grounded theory approach. A recursive process of coding resulted in findings that focused on the influence of gender and bisexual stigma on romantic relationship experiences. Relationship experiences were constructed in the context of White hegemonic masculinity norms requiring the performance of dominance and emotional restriction. Experiences of bisexual stigma included fears of rejection from gay and Asian communities that shaped the choice of partners and disclosure and concealment decisions. BIAAM create and maintain their romantic relationships in a social context that challenges them to straddle socially constructed binaries and hierarchies for performing gender, sexuality, and race. We discuss the implications of the findings for culturally competent and effective intervention.

Broadening the Perspective on the Dynamics of Men’s Suicide: Thought Suppression as a Mediator between Men’s Self-Reliance and Suicidality

Objective In most countries, men are at higher risk than women for suicide death. Research focused on masculinity and men’s mental health increasingly demonstrates that relationships between gender and various health outcomes, including suicidality, is complex as these relationships can be further explained by certain psychological processes or health behaviors. The objective of this study was to extend this area of research in a national sample of US men (n = 785) by investigating if their adherence to certain hegemonic masculine gender role norms (toughness and self-reliance through mechanical skills) is associated with the suppression of distressing thoughts and if thought suppression then increases their risk for suicidal thoughts and behaviors. Methods Men in the US who have recently experienced a stressful life event completed an anonymous online survey. Structural Equational Modeling (SEM) was used to test for direct and indirect effects (i.e., mediation) between variables. Results Men’s engagement in thought suppression mediated the relationship between self-reliance and suicidality. The norm of toughness was both directly related to suicidality and mediated by thought suppression. Conclusions Thought suppression appears to be a process that provides some explanation for the relationships between hegemonic masculine norms and suicidality in men, though this study indicated it may play only a small role. Research continues to build that certain masculine norms, such as self-reliance and toughness, are particularly concerning for men’s health. HIGHLIGHTS Men’s thought suppression mediates the relationship between self-reliance and suicidality Men’s toughness impacts suicidality both directly and via engagement in thought suppression These findings have implications for interventions that help men manage distressing thoughts

Men's Perspectives on Gender Relations in the Outdoor Education Field: Furthering the Case for a Hybrid Masculinity

Background: Scholarship has demonstrated the influence of hegemonic masculine norms on values and practices in outdoor adventure education. However, recent publications indicate that men outdoor leaders may be increasingly aware of gender biases and consequently changing their practice. To date, few publications have considered men outdoor leaders’ understanding of masculinity in the field and how it affects their practice and professional interactions. Purpose: This study critically examined multiple aspects of gender relations from men outdoor leaders’ perspectives to determine if observed changes in some men's practice signal changes toward a more equitable understanding of masculinity or merely a pivot to maintain the status quo. Methodology/Approach: A single-embedded case study methodology was employed. Interview, observation, and artifact data were collected from 18 men outdoor adventure education leaders across the United States and Canada. Findings/Conclusions: Participants noted awareness of gender inequity and articulated some strategies employed to combat sexism, particularly those associated with gendered student expectations. However, multiple participants also demonstrated gendered blind spots and supported gender hierarchy. Implications: Participants’ demonstrated awareness of gender issues, but the considerable blind spots identified in the data indicate a troubling lack of critical self-reflection and provide support for dominant hybrid masculinity.

Persona: How Professional Women in China Negotiate Gender Performance Online

With the shift of social interaction to online venues, do women still conform to existing gender norms? This article examines the online performance of professional women in urban China and their interactions with workplace colleagues on WeChat, a popular Chinese social media app that is an important venue for workplace interaction. As interviews showed, workplace interactions on WeChat perpetuated traditional gender norms of hegemonic masculinity, and professional women accommodated to those existing gender norms by using particular “personas.” Three major personas were identified: one that emphasized professional identity and downplayed gender identity; another that accentuated femininity and downplayed professional identity; and a third that performed femininity to please male workplace supervisors by confirming their masculinity. Persona is used as an analytical term to capture the WeChat activities of these professional women because, compared to online self-presentation, the persona represented a strategic conformity to existing norms and the women distanced themselves from their assumed personas. The use of social media, therefore, reproduced and reinforced conformity to existing gender norms because the online gendered persona constituted a comprehensive and enduring constraint.

Masculinity as a ‘hard small cage’? Reflections from Chimamanda Adichie’s We should all be feminists

With data from YouTube, this paper examines some masculinity issues raised by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie in her TEDx talk ‘We should all be feminists’ and some selected interviews. She problematizes the masculine ideal of suppressing emotions and acting tough and uses them to gauge how masculinity can be described as a ‘cage’. To exemplify how this ‘cage’ might look like in reality, I draw on evidence from the literature on masculinity and men’s health as well as data from an unpublished document on discourses of fear and anxiety among male COVID-19 survivors in Ghana. Using the concept of hegemonic masculinity, I argue that the plethora of evidence in the literature suggest that (hegemonic) masculine norms indeed constrain men in ways that may have dire consequences, not only for their ego, but also for their health; hence, Chimamanda’s call to change the existing discourse is in order. Focusing on the ‘cage’ metaphor (including its qualifiers), however, I question Chimamanda’s description of masculinity since it suggests as though there is no room for contestation – something which weakens her own call for changing the narrative. The paper therefore proposes going beyond the kind of cage Chimamanda equates masculinity with, to make way for the needed interventions.

‘Real men grill vegetables, not dead animals’: Discourse representations of men in an online vegan community

This article critically examines discourse representations of men in a large online vegan community. The analysis reveals a set of discourses which provide oppositional representations of vegan and non-vegan men, wherein the former is aligned with hegemonic masculine norms and the latter represented as transgressing or falling short of these norms. We interpret these discourses as providing means for the forum members to resist societal-level discourses which frame veganism and vegan men as feminine or ‘unmanly’, while also performing a social support function of reassuring posters who express concerns about how their veganism may impact how others perceive them and their masculinity. However, we also argue that such discourses can be considered problematic from an ecofeminist perspective, as they orient to and reinforce a hegemonic gender hierarchy which has enabled, and continues to enable, gender oppression, animal exploitation and the broader destruction of the natural world.

Breaking Ranks: How Medically Released Canadian Military Veteran Men Understand the PTSD Diagnosis

This paper examines posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among veterans through the lens of hegemonic military masculinity (e.g., emotional toughness, strength, courage) as the overarching social ecology of military life in which mental distress is experienced by service members. Three themes emerged from a focus group with medically released Canadian veteran men: (a) PTSD as a medically decided injury among male soldiers reporting mental distress is experienced as more than an individual or medical problem, but as a social problem—a form of “breaking ranks” with fellow soldiers; (b) the PTSD diagnosis creates intrapersonal and interpersonal dilemmas for medically released veterans that are directly a result of hegemonic military masculinity norms; and (c) veteran efforts to restore accepted masculinity, including resistance to a PTSD label, underpin their relationships with veteran peers and family members. We argue that applying a medical diagnosis of PTSD ignores the social ecology of military life and further erodes treasured masculinized identities among distressed service members. By recasting them as injured patients, male soldiers are separated from accepted demonstrations of masculine agency in re-establishing themselves as worthy members of the military institution. The analysis of veteran men’s first-hand narratives speaks to the importance of understanding military/veteran PTSD diagnoses within the gendered social ecology of military life. The results of this study can facilitate an understanding of how hegemonic military masculinity, medical regulatory policies, and relational and individual processes within the military interact to shape experiences of injury for military and veteran men.

Men, Masculinity and Unpaid Work: Experiences of Indian Millennials

Are Indian millennial men more engaged in household chores? Are they resisting hegemonic masculinity and traditional gender norms? Do they practise masculinity that is characterised by higher engagement of men in household chores and gender-atypical division of household chores? In-depth interviews with 17 educated, married, middle-class urban Indian millennial men working at managerial positions in different Indian organisations provide interesting answers to the above questions. This study explores the changing notions of masculinity among Indian millennials from (un)doing gender perspective and the factors behind it. Findings suggest weakening perceptions of hegemonic masculinity tenets among Indian millennial men as they do not believe in the concepts such as 'men as primary breadwinner', 'men as the head of the family', and 'male privilege’. Though exposed to traditional gendered views and hegemonic masculinity ideals during their childhood as they saw their parents preach and practice doing gender for fulfilling household responsibilities, our respondents profess gender-neutral attitudes about household chores. Their accounts show that their masculinity is characterised by egalitarian division of household chores, i.e., they practice masculinity that retrenches hegemonic masculinity. Our findings suggest that several economic and demographic factors have reshaped Indian millennial men's attitudes towards gender norms and masculinity. Implications are discussed.

Atomic Fatherhood: ‘Uncle Louis’, ‘Ike’ and the Electoral Politics of Paternalism in Canada and the United States, 1949–53

AbstractLouis St Laurent and Dwight Eisenhower came to power during one of the most intense periods of the Cold War. The Soviets had recently developed a nuclear bomb, touching off an arms race, while both the Canadian and American governments ran desperate investigations to purge their ranks of suspected communist sympathisers. St Laurent's victories in 1949, and again in 1953, as well as Eisenhower's in 1952, are often seen as inevitable. This interpretation is rooted in the fact that both men managed to stir overwhelming support from the hearts of their citizens. However, this viewpoint often fails to examine how their campaigns did this – through the projection of a reassuring, paternalistic image that spoke to hegemonic masculine norms in the era. Elaine Tyler May argues that the nuclear family, with the father at the helm, was seen as a form of ‘domestic containment’ against external ills. This article extends that theory upwards and explores how voters responded positively to the projection of a fatherly image from St Laurent and Eisenhower. At the same time, it examines how their campaigns actively deployed masculine image‐making to discredit opponents and depict them as outside the hegemonic masculine ideal. By voting instead for St Laurent and Eisenhower, citizens could be reassured that their families would come under the protection of a calm father figure, who would guide the nation through the current period of intense instability.

A masculinist look at Meredith’s One of Our Conquerors: Hegemonic, ethical and religious masculinity norms as determinant factors in the formation of male anxiety*

The field of masculinity studies is a recent branch of research, which seeks answers to questions concerning the construction of masculinities and examines how the construction process differs in different societal, cultural, and historical contexts. Primarily aiming at investigating how male individuals respond to hegemonic masculinity norms either through their rejection or internalisation, the field emphasizes that the close analysis of the concept of masculinity is of great importance since it is impossible to find solutions to problems regarding to gender issues without understanding masculinities. Literary masculinity studies empower this close analysis by foregrounding the construction of masculinities in literary texts. George Meredith’s One of Our Conquerors, which was written in 1891, at the beginning of the nineteenth century fin de siècle, is a successful example of literary texts which present a kind of critique of the prevailing patriarchal ideologies and of the damaging effects of hegemonic masculinity norms on psychologies of male individuals. Through its portrayal of a male protagonist who experiences a striking failure in conforming to the hegemonic masculinity expectations, the novel demonstrates the severe consequences of hegemonic gender expectations on non-hegemonic or alternative masculinities. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the role of hegemonic, ethical, and religious norms in the construction of masculine identities as well as in the occurrence of male anxiety through analysing masculinity portrayals in the novel.

An intersectional analysis of socio-cultural identities and gender and health inequities among children and youth in street situations in western Kenya

Research has uncovered substantial gender, social, and health disparities among children and youth in street situations (CYSS) in Eldoret, Kenya. From 2013-2014 we engaged CYSS aged 11-24 years in a qualitative study to explore the sexual language and practices used in the street subculture in Eldoret, Kenya. We engaged 65 CYSS in 25 in-depth interviews and 5 focus group discussions. This work uncovered stark gender inequities, which result in girls and young women in street situations experiencing profound levels of sexual and gender-based violence and harmful sexual and reproductive health outcomes. To comprehend the underlying drivers of these inequities and to appropriately and adequately intervene, we sought to comprehend how CYSS’s social identities intersect with systems of oppression and privilege to produce and maintain these inequities. We therefore sought to reanalyze the original data from this study using intersectionality as a theoretical framework to explore how systems of oppression in Kenya have shaped the street subculture, construct CYSS’s street and resistance social identities, and how these social identities and the street subculture intersect with macro-level structural factors to produce health and gender inequities. Our analysis identified three distinct social identities that are given to CYSS in Eldoret: Chokoraa (garbage pickers), Mshefa (hustlers), and Mboga ya jeshi (vegetables for soldiers). Our findings revealed how these identities and the street subculture intersect with the Patriarchy, the political-economic context, and social cultural forces in Kenya, resulting in hegemonic masculinity and detrimental gender roles and norms for young men and women. Our findings show that CYSS are a product of the oppressive systems that construct their circumstances and shape their social identities. This population urgently requires policies and programs that intervene at multiple levels to halt the harmful practices within street subculture and associated with street-involvement.

Scrutiny of Mahesh Dattani’s ‘Dance’ in “Dance Like a Man” from Judith Butler’s Perspective

Dattani’s plays deal with gender identity and gender discrimination. Society has imposed gender stereotypes on both men and women and when one does not accept or follow the roles decided for them there are ‘outcasts’ in the patriarchal world. In the play ‘Dance like a Man’, Jairaj and Ratna both with a common passion for dance are victims of Amritlal the patriarch of the family. Even after Amritlal’s demise Jairaj, his son cannot get rid of the expectations of his father which eventually leads him into depression and alcoholism. In contrast, Ratna at every stage cooperates with Amritlal for her benefit and pursues her passions till the end. Hegemonic masculinity norms can be traced to society’s pressure on women to be groomed and look desirable. This is the opposite of what’s seen in most animals where male species work on their looks to attract females. Ideas of hegemonic masculinity and emphasized femininity have directly resulted in the oppression of every gender for several centuries. Dattani’s Jairaj and Ratna have both suffered from patriarchy, subjugation, the quest for identity and the male gaze. The journey of both characters through all this has one the winner and the other the loser. One character fulfils its desires and wishes while the other merely participates under societal norms. This research paper attempts to analyze Mahesh Dattani’s ‘Dance like a Man ‘ from Judith Butler’s perspective of identity politics and gender performity.

Coparenting communication and hybrid masculinity in a fatherhood program

AbstractObjectiveThe objective of this study was to examine how involvement in a responsible fatherhood program affected participants' perceptions of masculinity and coparenting communication.BackgroundResponsible fatherhood programs emphasize the importance of being a nurturing and emotionally expressive father, challenging norms of hegemonic masculinity. This study examined how fathers described this hybrid masculinity and its impact on coparenting communication.MethodThematic analysis of 37 semistructured in‐depth interviews with a racially diverse sample of men enrolled in a responsible fatherhood program was conducted. Multiple investigators, researcher reflexivity, and an audit trail enhanced credibility, transferability, and dependability of the findings.ResultsFathers reported three types of communication with the mothers of their child(ren): confrontation, detachment, and engaged perspective‐taking. The latter approaches were learned in the fatherhood program. Fathers described several beliefs and skills affecting these approaches, including the importance of fatherhood, modeling effective communication, controlling one's emotions, and listening and speaking respectfully.ConclusionParticipation in the fatherhood program was useful in deescalating negative interactions and improving communication; however, beliefs about essential gender differences permeated participants' narratives.ImplicationsFuture programming for fathers should include curricula and peer mentoring to challenge norms of traditional masculinity and encourage multiple forms of egalitarian coparenting communication.

Princess Power: Longitudinal Associations Between Engagement With Princess Culture in Preschool and Gender Stereotypical Behavior, Body Esteem, and Hegemonic Masculinity in Early Adolescence.

Princess culture is criticized for contributing to gender stereotypes and poor body esteem, however, there is little longitudinal research examining these claims. This study examines associations between engagement with princess culture during early childhood and gender stereotypes, body esteem, and adherence to hegemonic masculinity in early adolescence. Participants included 307 children (51% female, Mage = 4.83 years, 87% White) who completed questionnaires at two time points, 5 years apart. The results indicated that early engagement with princess culture was not associated with later adherence to female gender stereotypes. However, princess engagement was associated with lower adherence to norms of hegemonic masculinity and higher body esteem. Socioeconomic status and gender moderated the results. Effect sizes were small to moderate. The changing nature of Disney princesses is discussed in the context of gender development across childhood.

What does it Mean to be a Man? Trans Masculinities, Bodily Practices, and Reflexive Embodiment

Confronted with the centrality of the body for trans-masculine individuals interviewed in the United Kingdom and Portugal, we explore how bodily-reflexive practices are central for doing masculinity. Following Connell’s early insight that bodies needed to come back to the political and sociological agendas, we propose that bodily-reflexive practice is a concept suited to account for the production of trans-masculinities. Although multiple, the journeys of trans-masculine individuals demonstrate how bodily experiences shape and redefine masculinities in ways that illuminate the nexus between bodies, embodiments, and discursive enactments of masculinity. Rather than oppositions between bodily conformity to and transgression of the norms of hegemonic masculinity, often encountered in idealizations of the medicalized transsexual against the genderqueer rebel, lived bodily experiences shape masculinities beyond linear oppositions. Tensions between natural and technological, material and discursive, or feminine and masculine were keys for understanding trans-masculine narratives about the body, embodiment, and identity.

Prospective associations between hegemonic masculinity and incident depression/depressive symptoms: Results from a national sample of Australian emerging adult men

Emerging adulthood is associated with several freedoms and opportunities, but is also a period of increased risk for several physical and mental health conditions. This study assessed the association between adherence to traditional masculine norms at baseline and incident depression and incident depressive symptoms at follow-up in a national sample of Australian emerging adult men (18–29 years). We performed binary logistic regressions based on two waves of data from a national longitudinal survey, Ten to Men: The Australian Longitudinal Study on Male Health. The sample comprised 2170 emerging adult men who completed both the Wave 1 (2013–2014) and Wave 2 (2015–2016) surveys. Results indicated that adhering to multidimensional hegemonic masculine norms at baseline did not confer risk for developing either incident Major Depression or incident depressive symptoms at follow-up, except for adhering to ‘playboy’ (e.g., desire for multiple sexual partners). These findings conflict with previous reports showing that hegemonic masculinity is associated with depression and depressive symptoms, and suggest that the assumption that adhering to traditional masculine norms places men at greater risk for depression should be questioned, at least during the emerging adult stage of the lifespan.

“It’s Not Macho, Is It?”: Contemporary British Christian Men’s Constructions of Masculinity

Religion is a key site for constructions of masculinity, and visions of a gender equal society must include religious men. This study examines how a group of British white, heterosexual, middle-class, lay Anglican men construct masculinities via discourses on church-going, worship styles, and godly submission. The interviewed men express a hybrid form of masculinity, informed by religious faith, that embraces typically “feminine” characteristics such as love, humility, and vulnerability. At the same time, they articulate ideals of heteronormativity and essentialized gender differences that support hegemonic masculinity. The participants engage simultaneously in a selective, “discursive distancing” from, and a discursive alignment with, hegemonic masculinity norms, thus revealing tensions between competing masculinity norms.