Periods Of Heavy Rain Research Articles

Erosion-safe operation using double deep Q-learning

Leading edge erosion on wind turbine blades can reduce aerodynamic efficiency and cause increased maintenance costs, potentially impacting the overall economic viability. Erosion-safe operation is the concept of reducing the blade tip speed during periods of heavy rain, thereby significantly reducing the erosion development and progression. This study explores the application of reinforcement learning, namely using a double deep Q-network, to implement erosion-safe operation. The proposed methodology involves learning a policy for tip speed control that maximizes revenue over a specific period of time. We demonstrate the concept based on 5 years of simulation of the DTU 10MW reference turbine and mesoscale weather simulation from Horns Rev. The trained model was found to increase the cumulative revenue by 1.6 % compared to not using erosion-safe operation. The model was able to effectively adapt to varying weather conditions and stochastic damage progression. Based on 10,000 random simulations, the trained model outperforms two baseline models in more than 98 % of the simulations.

Wide Riparian Zones Inhibited Trace Element Loss in Mining Wastelands by Reducing Surface Runoff and Trace Elements in Sediment.

The diffusion of trace elements in mining wastelands has attracted widespread attention in recent years. Vegetation restoration is an effective measure for controlling the surface migration of trace elements. However, there is no field evidence of the effective riparian zone width in mining wastelands. Three widths (5 m, 7.5 m, and 10 m) of Rhododendron simsii/Lolium perenne L. riparian zones were constructed in lead-zinc mining wastelands to investigate the loss of soil, cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), arsenic (As), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn). Asbestos tiles were used to cut off connections between adjacent plots to avoid hydrological interference. Plastic pipes and containers were used to collect runoff water. Results showed that more than 90% of trace elements were lost in sediment during low coverage and heavy rainfall periods. Compared with the 5 m riparian zone, the total trace element loss was reduced by 69-85% during the whole observation period in the 10 m riparian zone and by 86-99% during heavy rain periods in the 10 m riparian zone, which was due to reduction in runoff and concentrations of sediment and trace elements in the 10 m riparian zone. Indirect negative effects of riparian zone width on trace element loss through runoff and sediment concentration were found. These results indicated that the wide riparian zone promoted water infiltration, filtered soil particles, and reduced soil erosion and trace element loss. Riparian zones can be used as environmental management measures after mining areas are closed to reduce the spread of environmental risks in mining wastelands, although the long-term effects remain to be determined.

Cadmium, zinc, and copper leaching rates determined in large monolith lysimeters

Soil mass balances are used to assess the risk of trace metals that are inadvertently applied with fertilizers into agroecosystems. The accuracy of such balances is limited by leaching rates, as they are difficult to measure. Here, we used monolith lysimeters to precisely determine Cd, Cu, and Zn leaching rates in 2021 and 2022. The large lysimeters (n = 12, 1 m diameter, 1.35 m depth) included one soil type (cambisol, weakly acidic) and distinct cropping systems with three experimental replicates. Stable isotope tracers were applied to determine the direct transfer of these trace metals from the soil surface into the seepage water. The annual leaching rates ranged from 0.04 to 0.30 for Cd, 2.65 to 11.7 for Cu, and 7.27 to 39.0 g (ha a)−1 for Zn. These leaching rates were up to four times higher in the year with several heavy rain periods compared to the dry year. Monthly resolved data revealed that distinct climatic conditions in combination with crop development have a strong impact on trace metal leaching rates. In contrast, fertilization strategy (e.g., conventional vs. organic) had a minor effect on leaching rates. Trace metal leaching rates were up to 10 times smaller than fertilizer inputs and had therefore a minor impact on soil mass balances. This was further confirmed with isotope source tracing that showed that only small fractions of Cd, Cu, and Zn were directly transferred from the soil surface to the leached seepage water within two years (< 0.07 %). A comparison with models that predict Cd leaching rates in the EU suggests that the models overestimate the Cd soil output with seepage water. Hence, monolith lysimeters can help to refine leaching models and thereby also soil mass balances that are used to assess the risk of trace metals inputs with fertilizers.

A comparative study of SPI, PCI, PCD, and RAI methods for estimating drought in the Palu River Basin, Indonesia

The Palu Watershed is vulnerable to extreme hydrological events, especially periods of heavy rains and prolonged dry seasons. This study aims to determine the drought index and the results of a comparison of the drought index between the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) and the Rainfall Anomaly Index (RAI), Rainfall Concentration Index (PCI), Rainfall Concentration Level (PCD), and Rainfall Concentration Period (PCP). The data used are monthly rainfall from Bora, Kalawara, Kulawi, Palolo, and Wuasa stations with observation periods from 1985 to 2021. The Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients are used to determine the relationship between SPI and RAI, PCI, PCD, and PCP. RMSE and MAE are used to find out the absolute error in predictions. The results obtained show: PCI shows a uniform distribution of rainfall (76.57%) and moderately seasonal (32.43%) there is no distribution of seasonal and strongly seasonal rainfall, the dominant SPI is the normal category followed by mild and moderate drought, PCD and PCP show that rainfall is homogeneous and distributed throughout years and no rain is concentrated at any one time, Comparison of the relationship between SPI and RAI is very strong and significant compared to SPI versus PCI, SPI versus PCD and SPI versus PCP.

Polarimetric Radar Signatures in Various Lightning Activities During Seoul (Korea) Flood on August 8, 2022

On August 8 and 9, 2022, a record-breaking rain rate of 142 mm h−1, with an accumulated rainfall of more than 500 mm, was observed in the Seoul metropolitan area, Republic of Korea. This study focuses on analyzing the concentration of lightning in southern Seoul, which occurred solely on August 8. It is worth noting that the daily rainfall of August 8 was approximately twice that of August 9 (381 mm on August 8 vs. 198 mm on August 9). The RKSG (located in Yongin, 40 km south of Seoul) Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler was used to explore the characteristics of cloud microphysics associated with lightning activity. Four major heavy rain periods on August 8 were grouped into three categories of lightning rate (e.g., intense, moderate, and none), and their polarimetric signatures were compared. Significant differences in the vertical distribution of graupel were found within the temperature range of 0 °C and − 20 °C, as indicated by radar reflectivity (ZH) > 40 dBZ and differential reflectivity (ZDR) < 0.5 dB. Although graupel was detected in all three categories at the relatively warm temperatures of 0 °C to − 10 °C, its presence extended into colder regions exclusively in the intense category. This observation preceded the appearance of lightning by approximately 6 min. At heights with temperature ≤ − 20 °C, a high concentration of vertically aligned ice crystals was observed in lightning-prone regions, leading to a decrease in differential phase (ΦDP). In summary, this study provides valuable insights into the microphysical characteristics of thunderstorms and their relationship to lightning activity in the Seoul metropolitan area.

A cluster of leptospirosis cases associated with crocodile workers in the Northern Territory, Australia, 2022.

Leptospirosis is a worldwide zoonotic waterborne disease endemic in tropical and subtropical climates. Outbreaks have been observed in the Northern Territory (NT) of Australia. We briefly described the epidemiology of leptospirosis in the NT between 2012 and 2022, and undertook an investigation of a cluster of three leptospirosis cases observed in crocodile workers between January and December 2022 in the Top End of the NT. A descriptive case series was conducted to investigate the cluster; all three cases were male and non-Aboriginal with a median age of 46.5 years; none took chemoprophylaxis; only one of the three cases reported wearing appropriate protective attire; all reported receiving limited to no education about personal protective measures from their associated workplaces. Higher than average rainfall in both February and December 2022 likely contributed to the increased risk of infection in those months. Changing climate patterns are likely to result in more frequent periods of heavy rain, and risk of contracting leptospirosis in the NT may increase, particularly for those who work in wet and muddy conditions. Promoting the use of protective workplace clothing and equipment, the use of waterproof dressings for skin abrasions, regular hand hygiene, and the consideration of chemoprophylaxis in certain circumstances may prevent future cases.

An ephemeral sea star (Coscinasterias muricata) wasting event at Tauranga, New Zealand

ABSTRACT During late December 2018 a sea star wasting event occurred at Pilot Bay, Tauranga Harbour, North Island/Te Ika-a-Māui, Aotearoa New Zealand. Forty-seven specimens of the asteroid Coscinasterias muricata Verrill, 1867, with a maximum diameter of 50 - 150 mm, were found in varying states of wasting on and between rocks at low tide over an area of ∼70 m at the NW end of Pilot Bay. The wasting event followed a brief period of heavy rain (97.8 mm during the previous 24 h) and was short-lived, with no affected sea stars observed after three days. The affected C. muricata may have had low resilience to changes in water quality, particularly salinity. However, the cause of this wasting event remains unresolved. These opportunistic data suggest that small scale sea star wasting events of this nature may be easily overlooked due to their ephemeral nature. urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:C60C26A8-10D7-436D-B2F2-C547DD84BAD8

Effect of Water Vapor Transport on a Typical Rainstorm Process in the Arid Region of Southern Xinjiang: Observations and Numerical Simulations

There are frequent and intensive periods of heavy rain in the arid areas of southern Xinjiang. This study uses a typical rainstorm process in the South Xinjiang Basin to investigate the weather, physical mechanisms, mesoscale characteristics, and income and expenditure characteristics of water vapor sources, analyzing them using the observation data from southern Xinjiang regional automatic stations, ERA5 reanalysis data, multi-source satellite data, and WRF numerical simulation results. The study results show that torrential rain processes occur in the double-body distribution of the South Asian High in the upper troposphere, which is “high in the east and low in the west,” with “two ridges and one trough” in the middle layer. The development and movement of the low vortex, the configuration of low-level convergence and high-level divergence, and vertical upward movement provide favorable dynamic conditions for heavy rain. Additionally, the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, the Aral Sea, the Arabian Sea, and the Bay of Bengal are important water vapor sources for this rainstorm. The water vapor reaches the South Xinjiang Basin along westward, southwest, and eastward paths. It is mainly imported into the South Xinjiang Basin from 500 to 300 hPa on the southern border and 700–500 hPa on the west, north, and east borders, and exported from 500 to 300 hPa on the eastern border. The simulation results show that the change in water vapor content significantly influences the precipitation intensity and range. The water vapor transport at the southern boundary contributes the most precipitation during the rainstorm. As the water vapor in the rainstorm area increases (decreases), the ascending motion is strengthened (weakened), the low-level convergence and high-level divergence are strengthened (weakened), the water vapor transport to the middle and high levels increases (decreases), and the precipitation increases (decreases).

Using Electrical Methods to Increase Sedimentation Rate of Sludge in Drinking Water of Purification Stations during the Rainy Season

This study deals with increasing the rate of clay settlement in the sedimentation basins of drinking water purification plants, especially in heavy rain periods in 2017, by using an electric current. The electric current leads to the disposal of the charges on the surface of the suspended clay particles, which leads to their flocculation and increases the sedimentation rate in a shorter time. The results showed rapid sedimentation in a time not exceeding 25 minutes, as an electric cell consisting of two copper electrodes was placed in a container containing turbid river water with a turbidity of more than (1000) NTU. Several tests were conducted on Tigris River water samples in the Department of Physics / university of Mosul to control the current, voltage, and time. Changing one of the variables shows that the best conditions for the deposition of clays are when an electric current is applied at an intensity of 0.15 amperes and a voltage of 20 volts in a time of 20 minutes, the turbidity decreased to 2 NTU. Since the water that will be treated is drinking water, the copper electrodes have been replaced by carbon electrodes, as carbon is an inert element and it is safe to use with water. It was noted that the clays were deposited at a time close to when using copper electrodes.

Freshwater shellfish, Pila globosa: a review on its ecological and economical importance, nutritive and ethno-medicinal values

The freshwater Indian apple snail, Pila globosa (Swainson, 1822), is well adapted to the equatorial and tropical regions of the planet, where there are periods of heavy rain that are followed by dry spells. It is the most important biotic component of the ecosystem and a dominating member of its communities, making it crucial for the health of the ecosystem. It has a significant economic importance in the international trade market. The flesh of P. globosa is used in aquaculture and as a human protein supplement because of its high protein and low fat content, along with essential fatty acids. The shell of P. globosa is a good source of minerals, especially calcium. P. globosa has been employed in traditional medicinal practices to treat diseases like high blood pressure, heart disease, asthma, rickets, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoporosis, calcium metabolism, bleeding piles, constipation, diarrhoea, smallpox, syphilis, dizziness, anxiety, nervousness, urticaria, night blindness, and conjunctivitis. It is also used to regulate body temperature, to speed up wound healing, to treat circulatory issues, to revive virility and vitality, to treat weakness, and for vision improvement. P. globosa has antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, anti-cancer, and immune boosting properties, and it can be a benefit to mankind. This review provides an overview of the ecological and economic importance, nutritional and ethno-medicinal values of the snail P. globosa.

Effectiveness of Horizontal Sub-drain for Slope Stability on Crack Soil Using Numerical Model

A landslide occurred in the hilly area of Tulakan District, Pacitan, East Java Province, Indonesia. This was due to a period of heavy rain, resulting in a cumulative intensity of over 1000 mm in one month and a maximum daily rainfall exceeding 300 mm. Previous reports have suggested the use of horizontal sub-drains to manage groundwater levels and rainwater seepage to reduce the impact on slope stability. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the effectiveness of horizontal sub-drain as an alternative for managing groundwater and rainwater that seeped into the soil to increase the slope factor of safety by using numerical model. It also considered various factors such as the effect of real-time rainfall over a 30-day period before the landslide, hydraulic conductivity, soil parameter due to cracking and weathering, and the existing groundwater level. The coupled programs SEEP/W and SLOPE/W were used for analyses. The result showed that the horizontal sub-drain only increased the safety factor by less than 2% in the presence of a vertical crack and up to 7.7% with vertical cracks and weak layers in high ground water levels. In addition, this study found that horizontal sub-drains could be more effective in increasing the safety factor up to 11.5% when the rainfall intensity was higher (between 1.41 × 10–0.5 and 1.85 × 10–0.7 m/s) and lasted for 14 days. The installation position of the drains, soil conditions, rainfall condition, and contour topography were some of the factors that influenced the effectiveness of the horizontal sub-drains in increasing slope stability.

Sustainable Open-Graded Friction Course asphalt mixes with steel slag aggregates

A permeable mixture called Open-Graded Friction Course (OGFC) is used to lessen the effects of climate change, especially during periods of heavy rain. It is made up of open gradation, mostly coarse aggregates, and fewer fines. The advantages of an OGFC mixture include the removal of surface water from the pavement, noise absorption, increased frictional resistance and more. Steel slag is a waste product left over from the Iron and Steel industry that can be utilized as aggregates in OGFC mixes. The primary goal of this work is to assess the usage of steel slag aggregates in place of conventional aggregates to produce the OGFC mix for getting improved mixture properties. Five percentage substitutions were employed to examine the design and quality of the OGFC mix, namely, 0% (control mix), 25, 50, 75, and 100% of steel slag aggregates in place of conventional aggregates. Tests for air voids, binder draindown, unaged and aged Cantabro abrasion loss, and Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) test were conducted to evaluate the performance of OGFC mixes containing different percentages of steel slag. The test results show that the performance of the mix was improved by the addition of various percentages of steel slag. The results of the physical properties tests on steel aggregates were better than that of conventional aggregates. The mix with steel slag aggregates exhibits a slight improvement in the drainage property when compared to the conventional aggregate mix, according to the test results of the draindown test. When compared to the conventional mix, the mix with 100% replacement at 5.75% bitumen content produced better raveling resistance, and the mix with 50% steel slag replacement indicated improved resistance to moisture susceptibility with good Tensile Strength Ratio. The test results showed 100% replacement mix performed better in terms of abrasion loss, binder draindown, and air voids content, while a 50% replacement mix performed better in terms of moisture susceptibility along with other parameters. Overall, it can be concluded that using steel slag aggregates in the OGFC mix can be advantageous and increase sustainability with utilization of steel slag as an industrial marginal material in construction of pavements.

The mental and maternal health of women in flood-affected areas in Pakistan: a call for action

The mental and maternal health of women in flood-affected areas in Pakistan: a call for action

The impact of persistent anomalous precipitation in Southwest China caused by low-frequency atmospheric disturbances in different latitudes and altitudes

Previous studies have pointed out that persistent abnormal precipitation is closely related to atmospheric low-frequency oscillation, and Southwest China can be affected by low-frequency oscillation in different latitudes and altitudes. Therefore, it is necessary to study the relationship between persistent abnormal precipitation in Southwest China and low-frequency oscillation. In this study, the characteristics of atmospheric low-frequency oscillation in different latitudes and altitudes affecting persistent extreme precipitation in Southwest China were discussed by synthetic analysis and Butterworth filtering with precipitation data from meteorological stations and NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data, and the configuration relationship of low-frequency systems in three-dimensional space was shown. The results showed the following: 1) in the low-frequency circulation field, the Ural Mountains, east of Lake Baikal, the Sea of Okhotsk (Japan), the Western Pacific subtropical high control area, the South China Sea, the Indian Peninsula, and the Bay of Bengal were the key areas affecting precipitation; 2) oscillation could better reflect the original circulation characteristics at all latitudes of each layer, and on a period of oscillation of 15–30 days, it will affect precipitation at all altitudes and latitudes; and 3) at the lower level, different low-frequency cyclones and anticyclones moved to the mid-latitude and converged in different forms in the precipitation area. In the middle layer, the low-frequency high-pressure and low-pressure centers in the middle and high latitudes moved southward, finally forming a circulation situation of the high west and low east. At the upper level, the rainy area was controlled by low-frequency anticyclones and divergence centers from different regions, forming a high-altitude divergence field. The results can provide a theoretical basis for forecasting the extended period of persistent heavy rain in Southwest China.

Impact of Rain Intensity on Interstate Traffic Speeds Using Connected Vehicle Data

With the emergence of connected vehicle data and high-resolution weather data, there is an opportunity to develop models with high spatial-temporal fidelity to characterize the impact of weather on interstate traffic speeds. In this study, 275,422 trip records from 41,234 unique journeys on 42 rainy days in 2021 and 2022 were obtained. These trip records are categorized as no rain, slight rain, moderate rain, heavy rain, and very heavy rain periods using the precipitation rate from NOAA High-Resolution Rapid-Refresh (HRRR) data. It was observed that average speeds decreased by approximately 8.4% during conditions classified as very heavy rain compared to no rain. Similarly, the interquartile range of traffic speeds increased from 8.34 mph to 12.24 mph as the rain intensity increased. This study also developed a disaggregate approach using logit models to characterize the relationship between weather-related variables (precipitation rate, visibility, temperature, wind, and day or night) and interstate speed reductions. Estimation results reveal that the odds ratio of reducing speed is 5.8% higher for drivers if the precipitation rate is increased by 1 mm/h. The headwind was found to have a positive significant impact of only up to a 10% speed reduction, and speed reduction is greater during nighttime conditions compared to daytime conditions by a factor of 1.68. The additional explanatory variables shed light on drivers’ speed selection in adverse weather environments, providing more information than the single precipitation intensity measure. Results from this study will be particularly helpful for agencies and automobile manufacturers to provide advance warnings to drivers and establish thresholds for autonomous vehicle control.

Motorized Smart Roofing System using IoT for Sustainable development

Climate change caused by human activity has led to abnormal rainfall in India. Agriculture is a crucial source of income for the Indian Government and the abnormal rainfall patterns pose a significant threat to the industry. These fluctuations in rainfall have caused damage to homes, and infrastructure, wash away crops and destroy water sanitation. Unusual rainfalls are also affecting the Rooftop restaurants. The Government, Roof Top restaurant owners, and farmers are all seeking solutions to address the impact of climate change. One potential solution is the development of a Smart Roofing System that can detect rainfall and respond accordingly. The Proposed system would use a Rainfall Sensor to detect rain, which would then send signals to a Wi-Fi-enabled board. The board would then activate dc motors, opening the roof to protect against rainfall. When the Rainfall Sensor detects no rain, it sends a signal to the board to reverse the direction of the motors, closing the roof. The implementation of this Smart Roofing System could help minimize the damage caused by unusual rainfall patterns and help towards the development of a sustainable environment. With a Smart Roofing System in place, roof-top restaurant owners could continue their service during periods of heavy rain, ensuring minimal disruption to their business. Overall, the development of a Smart Roofing System could help protect India’s infrastructure, agriculture, and economy from the adverse effects of climate change with minimal cost.

Climate Indices-Based Analysis of Rainfall Spatiotemporal Variability in Pernambuco State, Brazil

In Brazil, the Northeast region, particularly the state of Pernambuco, is prone to extreme hydrological events, especially episodes of heavy rain and long periods of drought. This study examined the spatiotemporal variability of rainfall in Pernambuco and the occurrence of extreme rainfall events. In this study, the following climate indices were used in daily rainfall data from the historical series from 1990 to 2020: (a) the Precipitation Concentration Index (PCI), (b) the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), (c) the Precipitation Concentration Degree (PCD), (d) the Precipitation Concentration Period (PCP), and (e) the Rainfall Anomaly Index (RAI), and the non-parametric Mann–Kendall and Sen’s slope tests, for the analysis of trends in the series of precipitation and the studied climate indices. The results obtained indicated that the east of the state presents more distributed precipitation throughout the year, being “moderately seasonal” in the mesoregions Metropolitana do Recife and Zona da Mata; “seasonal” in the Agreste Pernambucano mesoregion; and “strongly seasonal” in the Sertão Pernambucano and Sertão do São Francisco mesoregions. The SPI found that the most severe and extreme droughts occurred in almost all mesoregions during the 1990s, except in the Sertão do São Francisco mesoregion, where they were predominant in the 2010s. Furthermore, based on the RAI index, it was possible to have a greater occurrence of negative anomalies than positive anomalies, especially in the last decade (2010–2020), indicating a possible change in rainfall patterns. However, more in-depth research is required to determine the possible causes of this increased number of negative anomalies. Finally, the trend analysis indicated that only the SPI-12 presented trends in the Metropolitana do Recife, Agreste, and Sertão Pernambucano mesoregions. However, Sen’s slope test indicated that the magnitude of these trends is not significant.

Physiological responses and adaptive strategies to acute low-salinity environmental stress of the euryhaline marine fish black seabream (Acanthopagrus schlegelii)

The physiological metabolism of marine animals farmed in coastal areas is influenced greatly by extreme weather and frequent aqueous layer exchange, with short or long periods of heavy rain reducing seawater salinity. Black seabream (Acanthopagrus schlegelii) is a euryhaline fish, that are farmed in China under both normal/ambient salinity in seawater cages and low salinity conditions in pond culture. To explore the effects of an acute change in salinity on physiological metabolism, juvenile black seabream (weight 19.80 ± 0.37 g) was subjected to low salinity (4–5 psu) over five time points including 1 h (H1), 6 h (H6), 12 h (H12), 24 h (H24) and one week (W), with 0 h (initial, natural salinity of 22 psu) as control group. Results indicated that acute exposure to low-salinity resulted in various responses related to oxidative stress (OS) and endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS). The key markers of OS including reactive oxygen species and malonaldehyde were significantly increased with acute salinity stress up to 6 h, then decreased to return to normal levels. A similar pattern was recorded for total antioxidant capacity, which showed significantly higher activity in the H6 group. All parameters related to ERS increased with duration of the low-salinity stress, which stimulated expression of key genes including nuclear factor kappa B (nf-κb) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (jnk), triggering inflammation and apoptosis. However, total apoptotic cell rate decreased markedly as the duration of salinity stress increased up to one week. Gill expression of genes of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) biosynthesis was up-regulated by low salinity stress with levels of docosahexaenoic (DHA), eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and arachidonic acids (ARA) being highest in the H12 group, which positively contributed to enhanced ability of osmoregulation. In conclusion, acute low-salinity stress stimulated various stress responses but, as the duration of salinity stress increased, the fish showed signs of physiological adaptation to the environmental change. During the adaptive process to maintain hemolymph osmotic pressure regulation, LC-PUFA were rapidly enriched in gill, which might be a crucial strategy allowing A. schlegelii to adapt to low-salinity stress. These findings provided further insight and understanding of the physiological responses and underlying adaptive strategy of euryhaline fish to salinity stress, and confirmed time-dependent effects.

Multisource and Multilevel Investigations on a Historical Landslide: The 1907 Servigliano Earth Flow in Montemurro (Basilicata, Southern Italy)

Italy is one of the European countries most affected by landslides. In order to mitigate the risk, the analysis of such phenomena should involve a broad spectrum of studies to understand the geological and geomorphological properties of the unstable areas, the geometric features of the landslides and the causes of their trigger, the evolution over time, and the works of risk mitigation taken as well as their effectiveness over time. This article is concerned with multidisciplinary investigations on a historical earth flow occurred in Montemurro (Basilicata, Southern Italy) in 1907. We analyse unpublished archive sources strictly coupled with new geological and geomorphological surveys. Furthermore, to gain information on the geometrical features of the landslide body, geophysical prospections (ERT) is used alongside the field surveys. Lastly, to gain insight on the landslide triggering factors, we employed historical–climatological analysis: in particular, we made use of the monthly simple daily intensity index (SDII) to evaluate extreme events and the standardised precipitation index (SPI) to consider previous wetness conditions. The earth flow was triggered on 26 February 1907 and the main movement lasted about one week, involving several buildings, including those of cultural interest. Historical documentary investigations and historical climatological analysis both indicate that the earth flow was triggered by a preceding heavy rain period, which independent historical sources suggest also caused the activation of landslides over a wider area around Montemurro. Currently, the earth flow is NE–SW oriented, extends for a length of ~1.1 km, and has an average width of ~220 m. The landslide is in a dormant activity phase. From a methodological point of view, the research stresses the importance of integrated approaches to investigate natural hazards, particularly by the use of historical data. This research may be of interest to academics, practitioners, and policymakers for both the methodological approach followed and results gained, useful in view of both risk mitigation and territorial planning of landslide-prone areas.

Four-Year Field Survey of Black Band Disease and Skeletal Growth Anomalies in Encrusting Montipora spp. Corals around Sesoko Island, Okinawa

The Indo-Pacific zooxanthellate scleractinian coral genus Montipora is the host of many coral diseases. Among these are cyanobacterial Black Band Disease (BBD) and Skeletal Growth Anomalies (GAs), but in general data on both diseases are lacking from many regions of the Indo-Pacific, including from Okinawa, southern Japan. In this study, we collected annual prevalence data of Black Band Disease (BBD) and Skeletal Growth Anomalies (GAs) affecting the encrusting form of genus Montipora within the shallow reefs of the subtropical Sesoko Island (off the central west coast of Okinawajima Island) from summer to autumn for four years (2017 to 2020). In 2020 Montipora percent coverage and colony count were also assessed. Generalized Linear Models (GLM) were used to understand the spatial and temporal variation of both BBD and GAs in the nearshore (NE) and reef edge (RE) sites, which revealed higher probability of BBD occurrence in RE sites. BBD prevalence was significantly higher in 2017 in some sites than all other years with site S12 having significant higher probability during all four surveyed years. In terms of GAs, certain sites in 2020 had higher probability of occurrence than during the other years. While the general trend of GAs increased from 2017 to 2020, it was observed to be non-fatal to colonies. In both diseases, the interaction between sites and years was significant. We also observed certain BBD-infected colonies escaping complete mortality. BBD progression rates were monitored in 2020 at site S4, and progression was related to seawater temperatures and was suppressed during periods of heavy rain and large strong typhoons. Our results suggest that higher BBD progression rates are linked with high sea water temperatures (SST &gt; bleaching threshold SST) and higher light levels (&gt;1400 µmol m−2 s−1), indicating the need for further controlled laboratory experiments. The current research will help form the basis for continued future research into these diseases and their causes in Okinawa and the Indo-Pacific Ocean.