Heat Tracer Methods Research Articles

Groundwater–surface water exchange from temperature time series: A comparative study of heat tracer methods

The importance of the interaction between groundwater and surface water is increasingly being recognized for both understanding and managing water systems. Many efforts have been made to characterize and quantify groundwater–surface water exchange. In particular, temperature–based methods have quickly established themselves given their monetary and practical advantages. In the last 15 years, several methods for interpreting passive temperature time series measured in the streambed have been developed. Still, the benchmarking of these methods has only been carried out in specific and distinct hydrological conditions.This article aims to fill this research gap by benchmarking the performance of six commonly used methods for deriving seepage fluxes using a two-year-long temperature time series covering various meteorological and thermal conditions. This work compares three analytical methods that calculate seepage flux using the amplitude and/or phase of the temperature signals, and three numerical methods that use different schemes to inversely solve the one–dimensional heat transport equation in the streambed. The temperature measurements were made in the context of an international dispute between Chile and Bolivia over the status and use of the waters of the Silala River, Northern Chile. Flux estimations are tested against Darcy’s flux derived from measured hydraulic gradient and hydraulic conductivity.Flux estimations from the benchmarked methods ranged from −0.5 to 3.5 m/d (with positive fluxes directed downwards), whereas fluxes estimated using Darcy’s law ranged from 0.5 to 6 m/d. Results show that the amplitude method is the best–performing method. This method is best suited for estimating the direction of the fluxes, while the method using both the thermal amplitude and phase is best suited for monthly flux trends, and the combination of a Local Polynomial (LP) method and a Maximum Likelihood Estimator (MLE) method (LPMLEn) is appropriate for estimating flux in transient conditions.The use of heat as a tracer proved to be an effective tool for monitoring groundwater–surface water exchange in a river reach for two years, and yielded exchange flux estimates with lower point-scale variability than Darcy’s law.

Acquisition of Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of Shallow Groundwater Movement Based on Long-Term Temperature Time Series in the Kangding Area, Eastern Tibetan Plateau

Heat has been widely used as a groundwater tracer to determine groundwater flow direction and velocity in a way that is ubiquitous, low-cost, environmentally friendly, and easy to use. However, temperature observations are generally short-term and small-scale, meaning they may not be able to reflect long-term changes in the characteristics of groundwater movement. In this study, we utilize 515 days of temperature data, collected from four measurement points in the Kangding area of the eastern Tibetan Plateau, in order to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of groundwater flow velocities using different analytical heat tracing methods. An analysis is conducted to evaluate the impact of thermal parameter uncertainties on the calculation of flow velocity, and a comparison is undertaken between the results of the phase, amplitude, and combined amplitude-phase methods. We subsequently discuss the relationship between flow velocity changes and precipitation. The results show that the estimated flow velocity is more susceptible to the volumetric heat capacity of the saturated sediment than it is to thermal conductivity. The phase method is more suitable for use in calculations in the study area, indicating that precipitation significantly impacts the flow velocity and that this impact is more pronounced in areas with flat terrain compared to areas with significant variation in elevation. Our research provides a comparative study of the heat tracing methods in areas with varied terrains and offers new evidence for the impact of precipitation and topography on groundwater infiltration.

A comparison of radon, heat tracer and head gradient methods to quantify surface water - groundwater exchange in a tidal wetland (Kooragang Island, Newcastle, Australia)

Subsurface flow plays an important role in the functioning of wetlands and in the maintenance of their ecosystem services. Specifically, the transport and exchange of dissolved matter between sediments and surface waters is regulated by subsurface flow, which can strongly affect ecological zonation and productivity. Having a quantitative understanding of this subsurface flow is therefore important. Field techniques based on Darcy’s equation or natural tracers are often used separately to assess flows. Here, radon and heat (both natural groundwater tracers) and Darcy’s equation are used simultaneously to quantify the subsurface flow in a tidal wetland (Kooragang Island, Newcastle, Australia) and the results of the independent methods are compared. A steady-state radon mass balance model indicated an overall net subsurface exfiltration of 10.2 ± 4.2 cm/d while a 1D, vertical fluid heat transport model indicated a net exfiltration of 4.3 ± 2.9 cm/d. Flow estimated from analysis of hydraulic heads indicated an exfiltration rate of 3.2 ± 1.8 cm/d. The difference in flow rates is likely due to the localised measurement of the heat and head methods relative to radon, and therefore, these methods are less likely to capture zones of preferential subsurface flow. The main advantage of radon is that it provides the total subsurface flow regardless of the driving force. While head gradient or heat tracer method have the advantage of temporally quantify infiltration and exfiltration, we highlight that these methods may underestimate subsurface flows in highly dynamic coastal systems, such as tidal wetlands where a large portion of the subsurface flow is recirculated seawater. This could potentially lead to errors in solute flux estimates. This study highlights the importance of employing a multi-tracer approach and has implications towards quantifying the hydrological export of dissolved constituents (e.g., carbon and nitrogen) in coastal wetlands.

Beaver dam analogues drive heterogeneous groundwater–surface water interactions

AbstractBeaver dam analogues (BDAs) are a cost‐effective stream restoration approach that leverages the recognized environmental benefits of natural beaver dams on channel stability and local hydrology. Although natural beaver dams are known to exert considerable influence on the hydrologic conditions of a stream system by mediating geomorphic processes, nutrient cycling, and groundwater–surface water interactions, the impacts of beaver‐derived restoration methods on groundwater–surface water exchange are poorly characterized. To address this deficit, we monitored hyporheic exchange fluxes and streambed porewater biogeochemistry across a sequence of BDAs installed along a central Wyoming stream during the summer of 2019. Streambed fluxes were quantified by heat tracing methods and vertical hydraulic gradients. Biogeochemical activity was evaluated using major ion porewater chemistry and principal component analysis. Vertical fluxes of approximately 1.0 m/day were observed around the BDAs, as was the development of spatially heterogeneous zones of nitrate production, groundwater upwelling, and anaerobic reduction. Strong contrasts in hyporheic zone processes were observed across BDAs of differing sizes. This suggests that structures may function with size‐dependent behaviour, only altering groundwater–surface water interactions after a threshold hydraulic step height is exceeded. Patterns of hyporheic exchange and biogeochemical cycling around the studied BDAs resemble those around natural beaver dams, suggesting that BDAs may provide comparable benefits to channel complexity and near‐stream function over a 1‐year period.

A review on using heat as a tool for studying groundwater–surface water interactions

In terms of the research on groundwater–surface water heat-tracing methods, investigation of the interactions within the compound system of the groundwater–surface water–hyporheic zone can effectively reveal the relevant physicochemical processes and microbial properties. The evaluation of these properties represents a key component in qualitative and quantitative research on groundwater–surface water interactions. Therefore, this paper reviews the research results on groundwater–surface water interactions achieved by related researchers using heat as a natural tracer over the last decade. In connection with the application of heat-tracing theory to the basic principles of hyporheic exchange between groundwater and surface water, research on groundwater–surface water interaction through one-dimensional steady-state and transient-state heat transport analytical models, techniques to collect and analyze temperature time series data, and numerical simulation technology is reviewed. In addition, directions for future research using groundwater–surface water heat-tracing methods are suggested. First, hypothetical, difficult temperature boundary and hydrogeological conditions require further research. Second, hydrodynamic exchange capacity and the processes of heat exchange and solute concentration exchange in the hyporheic zone alongside riverbeds should be appropriately and accurately measured under multi-scale influences. Third, the overall study of the heat transport process inside the hyporheic zone induced by complex riverbed forms should be performed, and the response mechanism of riverbed hyporheic exchanges driven by riverbed form, the hydrodynamic force of surface water, and sediment permeability should be revealed. The objectives and goals of this paper are to encourage scholars interested in analyzing groundwater–surface water interactions using heat as a tracer to creatively solve practical problems and to improve the ecological functions of river aquatic habitats through new research results.

Bayesian Monitoring Design for Streambed Heat Tracing: Numerical Simulation and Sandbox Experiments

Heat tracing methods have been widely employed for subsurface characterization. Nevertheless, there were very few studies regarding the optimal monitoring design for heat tracing in heterogeneous streambeds. In this study, we addressed this issue by proposing an efficient optimal design framework to collect the most informative diurnal temperature signal for Bayesian estimation of streambed hydraulic conductivities. The data worth (DW) was measured by the expected relative entropy between the prior and posterior distributions of the conductivity field. An adaptively refined Gaussian process surrogate was employed to alleviate the computational burden, resulting in at least three orders of magnitude of speed-up. The applicability of the optimal experimental design framework was evaluated by both numerical and sandbox experimental cases. Results showed that the most informative locations centered in the transition zones among the main patterns of the hydraulic conductivity field, while the most informative times centered in a short period after the minimum/maximum temperature appeared. With the fixed number of measurements, extending the calibration period was more beneficial than increasing the monitoring frequency in improving the estimation results. To our best knowledge, this work is the first study on Bayesian monitoring design for streambed characterization with the heat tracing method. The method and results can provide guidance on selecting monitoring strategies under budget-limited conditions.

Hydrogeological controls on spatial patterns of groundwater discharge in peatlands

Abstract. Peatland environments provide important ecosystem services including water and carbon storage, nutrient processing and retention, and wildlife habitat. However, these systems and the services they provide have been degraded through historical anthropogenic agricultural conversion and dewatering practices. Effective wetland restoration requires incorporating site hydrology and understanding groundwater discharge spatial patterns. Groundwater discharge maintains wetland ecosystems by providing relatively stable hydrologic conditions, nutrient inputs, and thermal buffering important for ecological structure and function; however, a comprehensive site-specific evaluation is rarely feasible for such resource-constrained projects. An improved process-based understanding of groundwater discharge in peatlands may help guide ecological restoration design without the need for invasive methodologies and detailed site-specific investigation. Here we examine a kettle-hole peatland in southeast Massachusetts historically modified for commercial cranberry farming. During the time of our investigation, a large process-based ecological restoration project was in the assessment and design phases. To gain insight into the drivers of site hydrology, we evaluated the spatial patterning of groundwater discharge and the subsurface structure of the peatland complex using heat-tracing methods and ground-penetrating radar. Our results illustrate that two groundwater discharge processes contribute to the peatland hydrologic system: diffuse lower-flux marginal matrix seepage and discrete higher-flux preferential-flow-path seepage. Both types of groundwater discharge develop through interactions with subsurface peatland basin structure, often where the basin slope is at a high angle to the regional groundwater gradient. These field observations indicate strong correlation between subsurface structures and surficial groundwater discharge. Understanding these general patterns may allow resource managers to more efficiently predict and locate groundwater seepage, confirm these using remote sensing technologies, and incorporate this information into restoration design for these critical ecosystems.

A comparison of thermal infrared to fiber-optic distributed temperature sensing for evaluation of groundwater discharge to surface water

Groundwater has a predictable thermal signature that can be used to locate discrete zones of discharge to surface water. As climate warms, surface water with strong groundwater influence will provide habitat stability and refuge for thermally stressed aquatic species, and is therefore critical to locate and protect. Alternatively, these discrete seepage locations may serve as potential point sources of contaminants from polluted aquifers. This study compares two increasingly common heat tracing methods to locate discrete groundwater discharge: direct-contact measurements made with fiber-optic distributed temperature sensing (FO-DTS) and remote sensing measurements collected with thermal infrared (TIR) cameras. FO-DTS is used to make high spatial resolution (typically m) thermal measurements through time within the water column using temperature-sensitive cables. The spatial–temporal data can be analyzed with statistical measures to reveal zones of groundwater influence, however, the personnel requirements, time to install, and time to georeference the cables can be burdensome, and the control units need constant calibration. In contrast, TIR data collection, either from handheld, airborne, or satellite platforms, can quickly capture point-in-time evaluations of groundwater seepage zones across large scales. However the remote nature of TIR measurements means they can be adversely influenced by a number of environmental and physical factors, and the measurements are limited to the surface “skin” temperature of water features. We present case studies from a range of lentic to lotic aquatic systems to identify capabilities and limitations of both technologies and highlight situations in which one or the other might be a better instrument choice for locating groundwater discharge. FO-DTS performs well in all systems across seasons, but data collection was limited spatially by practical considerations of cable installation. TIR is found to consistently locate groundwater seepage zones above and along the streambank, but submerged seepage zones are only well identified in shallow systems (e.g. <0.5 m depth) with moderate flow. Winter data collection, when groundwater is relatively warm and buoyant, increases the water surface expression of discharge zones in shallow systems.

Assessing Groundwater Contribution to Streamflow of a Large Alpine River with Heat Tracer Methods and Hydrological Modelling

AbstractThe contribution of groundwater to streamflow in Alpine catchments is still poorly understood, despite the fact that it may heavily impact hydrological balance and stream habitats. This paper presents the results of a field campaign based on experiments with heat tracer methods to assess the hyporheic flow during the low‐flow period of a large Alpine river in Italy. These measurements were employed to validate a distributed hydrological model that can be used to asses river–groundwater interaction in both low‐flow and high‐flow conditions. The results show that groundwater may have a relevant role during low‐flow periods, by increasing river discharge and during floods, by subtracting direct run‐off that is stored in river banks. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Book Reviews

Book Reviews

Book review: Estimating Groundwater Recharge, by Richard W Healy (Cambridge University Press, 2010)

Estimating Groundwater Recharge by Richard W. Healy (Healy 2010, with contributions from Bridget R. Scanlon) is an excellent addition to the growing knowledge base of groundwater science and technology. Understanding groundwater recharge is a prerequisite for the meaningful simulation of groundwater flow and transport, and, hence, successful management of renewable water resources. By placing an emphasis on method, this book provides clear concepts of the recharge process and associated methods that stem from more than 800 peer-reviewed references. Estimating Groundwater Recharge is organized into nine relatively concise chapters. It begins with descriptions of the conceptual framework of groundwater recharge and ends with an example of the USA to illustrate how the conceptual models are applied in reality. Chapters 2 through 8 deal with various methods. Theoretical models are combined with cases studies, drawn largely from the research projects undertaken in developed countries. Chapter 2 discusses water-budget methods, a foundation of following methods. Chapter 3 is about the modelling approach, while chapter 4 introduces the methods related to surface-water data. The physical, chemical and heat-tracer methods form chapters 5 through 8, which acknowledge the differences between applications for both the unsaturated and saturated zones. For instance, chapter 5 is dedicated to the physical methods as applied in the unsaturated zone, whereas chapter 6 discusses the same methods but in the saturated context. The organization of chapters in the book does, in some respects, resemble Groundwater Recharge in a Desert Environment: The Southwestern United States edited by Hogan et al. (2004). Perhaps due to the common authorship, some similarities exist. However, Healy’s book offers a comprehensive yet focused treatment in both theoretical and practical aspects through a wealth of cited references. The approach helps to reinforce theoretical concepts and therefore gives it a more modern feel. Introduction of recharge terminology in section 1.2 of the book is helpful, not only for its use as an academic text but also for practical clarity for those who are not necessarily groundwater practitioners. ‘Recharge’ is defined in the book as the downward flow of water reaching the water table, adding to groundwater storage. In fact, adding storage should be seen as an innate part of water arrival at the water table. Depending on the rate of groundwater discharge, the build up of the groundwater storage due to recharge may not necessarily be observed as this storage is conditioned by other factors apart from recharge. Healy rightly points out that the definition excludes water flow to an aquifer from an adjoining groundwater system, which is referred to as interaquifer flow or groundwater underflow. Another interesting term that is expanded upon is ‘base flow’, which is sometimes understood differently between groundwater and surface-water professionals. The groundwater camp would insist that base flow is water that has been discharged from the saturated zone. This is the stated definition in many groundwater books, including this one. In the opposing camp, base flowmay be regarded as all streamflow that is not derived directly from surface runoff. Without proper clarification of the terminology used, confusion may arise as has been experienced during the assessment of the role of base flow in the instream flow requirements required by the national Water Act in South Africa. The conceptual clarification of base flow made in section 4.1.2 of this book is practically valuable for multi-disciplinary research. Like many other hydrogeological phenomena, recharge varies both spatially and temporally, dependent upon the combination of influencing factors such as climate, soils, geology, geomorphology, hydrology, vegetation and land use. Based on the source of data, its availability and the nature of the parameters considered, etc., the book comprehensively documents some 40 methods that can be applied for estimating groundwater recharge in a range of hydrogeological scenarios. A distinction is made between point and integrated values of recharge estimation. Diffuse and focused recharges are also highlighted throughout the text for the readers’ consideration. The concepts used are consistent with those given by popular Received: 24 May 2011 /Accepted: 4 July 2011 Published online: 21 July 2011