Hate Crime Research Articles

Do White People and Racial Minorities Face Different Threats from Public Mass Shooters? A Victim-Focused Analysis of Extremism, Prejudice, and Possible Hate Crimes

ABSTRACT For this study we explored the possibility that people of different races face different threats from public mass shooters. To learn more, we analyzed data on all public mass shooting fatalities in the United States from 1966–2023 in which both the victim’s and offender’s race were known (N = 1,154). Quantitative tests revealed that White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian people were disproportionately killed by mass shooters of their own race, and this threat was especially pronounced for White people, who accounted for 77% of all victims killed by same-race shooters. When different-race victimization was analyzed, non-White victims were collectively overrepresented relative to their overall share of the U.S. population and far more likely than White victims to be killed by public mass shooters with extremist beliefs and racial or xenophobic prejudices. We discuss the implications of these findings and how they might lead to deeper understandings of the racial elements of these crimes.

От наказания к диалогу: практика школьных служб примирения

<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Context and relevance. </strong>School plays a crucial role in the socialization process, providing students with opportunities to develop their personalities and learn to navigate challenges. Conflicts that arise within the educational environment – an inevitable part of social interaction – are viewed by social psychology as valuable experiences for learning constructive ways to resolve disputes. One effective means of supporting this development is the implementation of a restorative approach through school-based reconciliation services. <br><strong>Objective. </strong>To examine the practical implementation of the restorative approach as a key aspect of socio-psychological work in schools. <br><strong>Research questions.</strong> 1) What forms the foundation of the restorative approach, according to leading restorative programs? 2) What mechanisms are employed in the implementation of these restorative programs? 3) What types of conflicts does the School Reconciliation Service engage in resolving? <br><strong>Methods and materials.</strong> 1) A total of 2676 checklists detailing rehabilitation programs implemented in Moscow between 2022 and 2025 were analyzed. The data were examined using frequency analysis and presented through qualitative content analysis. 2) Eleven in-depth interviews were conducted with leaders of restorative programs. The collected data were processed using methods of mathematical analysis. <br><strong>Results.</strong> The analysis yielded data on the distribution of types of restorative programs, the nature of the issues addressed, and the sources of program initiation. The thematic focus of conflict situations was identified, reflecting the current state of the school environment. Key characteristics and mechanisms of the restorative approach were also outlined based on the perspectives of leading restorative programs.<br><strong>Conclusions.</strong> The restorative approach in schools presents a humanistic alternative to traditional punitive practices, placing emphasis on dialogue, empathy, and mutual understanding. It is applied both in resolving interpersonal conflicts and in fostering a more positive psychological climate within the school community. Through participation in restorative programs, individuals develop constructive communication skills and learn to take responsibility for their actions. The primary causes of conflict include issues related to personal honor, property disputes, interethnic tensions, group dynamics, and cyberbullying.</p>

Radical Hope as a Transformative Praxis in the Face of Hate and Intolerance

Radical hope is a transformative approach suited to sustain collective resilience in moments of crisis and profound disorientation. In our current moment of democratic backsliding, vilification and scapegoating of people and groups, increased hate crime incidence, and increased sociopolitical polarization, radical hope offers an approach that bridges theoretical and historical insights with actionable strategies. It can serve as a catalyst for collective action, enabling communities to confront systemic oppression while imagining and constructing just alternatives. We examine four theoretical and practical dimensions of radical hope: envisioning beyond the present, collective resilience, moral anchoring, and sustained engagement. In doing so, we argue for integrating radical hope as a transformative approach, particularly for public administration scholars and practitioners as they respond to threats to democracy, including challenges to values of social equity and inclusion.

The Role of Ethnic Ties in Refugee Reception: A Comparative Study of Zomi Refugees in Manipur and Mizoram

This paper examines how ethnic ties and political dynamics shaped the reception of Zomi refugees in the Indian states of Manipur and Mizoram following the 2021 military coup in Myanmar. Although both states share geographical proximity and cultural links with the Zomi people, their responses diverse significantly. Manipur adopted a restrictive stance, influenced by political pragmatisms and longstanding ethnic tensions between the dominant Meitei community and the Kuki-Zomi groups. In contrast, Mizoram responded with compassion, driven by ethnic solidarity and a sense of shared ancestry. Using a comparative qualitative approach based on secondary data- including media reports, and social media narratives-the study explores how local governance, identity politics, and community mobilisation affected refugee reception. The security-focused response of Manipur reveals the limitations of refugee protection in politically fragmented settings. Conversely, the inclusive response of Mizoram illustrates how cultural kinship can supersede logistical constraints to enable grassroots humanitarianism. The findings highlight that ethnic and cultural relationships can play a pivotal role in shaping humanitarian action, while political fragmentation and exclusionary narratives may hinder effective refugee management. The study contributes to the broader discourse on refugee management by highlighting the importance of local dynamics, ethnic identity, and political will in shaping responses to forced migration in ethnically diverse states.

A Multi-Goal, Multi-Action, Cognitive-Affective Model for Understanding Gatekeepers' Intention to Report Deviant Close-Others.

Reporting a close-other to authorities can save lives from extreme deviant behaviors but it also poses a dilemma as gatekeepers struggle between their relationship and societal obligations. We propose and test a multi-goal, multi-action, cognitive-affective model to elucidate this decision-making process. Across various contexts (hate crimes, problem gambling, and violent extremism), gatekeepers' motivational strength to report and not report their close-other and their anticipated regret toward both actions simultaneously contributed to the variance of reporting intentions (30-70%). Notably, a future time perspective increased reporting intentions by elevating the motivational strength of all societal obligations (e.g., concern for innocent others) and one relationship obligation (helping the close-other). Our findings suggest that a more balanced weighting underlies the multi-goal dynamic of dilemmatic decision-making, and that the reporting decision is a nuanced blend of concerns for both societal welfare and the well-being of loved ones. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

CHINESE INFLUENCE ON SECURITY OF CENTRAL ASIA

Focusing on China's primarily defensive posture in reaction to regional instability and its internal issues in Xinjiang, this essay analyses China's security policy and strategic engagement in Central Asia. The paper examines Beijing's efforts to keep terrorism, separatism, and transnational crime from destabilising Central Asia and its western frontiers by analysing its bilateral and multilateral activities, particularly its participation in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO). The study emphasises the region's geopolitical relevance, which is influenced by resource richness, domestic political unrest, ethnic tensions, and the overlapping interests of large countries. The report concludes that China's involvement in Central Asia is founded on maintaining economic opportunity and regional stability rather than establishing hegemonic authority, altering conventional security paradigms through cooperative rather than coercive tactics.

Counteracting Disinformation in the Field of Migration Management in Russia

The article is devoted to the analysis of legal support for countering misinformation in the field of migration processes. In the context of growing migration flows and increasing information threats, disinformation becomes a serious challenge to social stability and legal order. The study focuses on identifying legal mechanisms aimed at combating misinformation and their effectiveness in the context of migration processes. The aim and hypothesis of the study: to identify key legal tools and strategies to counter misinformation in the migration sphere, and to propose recommendations for improving legislation. The hypothesis of the study is that the existing legal norms are not effective enough to counter disinformation, which requires the development of new approaches and strengthening international cooperation. Methods and background data: the study uses methods of analyzing normative legal acts, content analysis of mass media and social networks, as well as comparative analysis of law enforcement practice in different countries. International documents (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, UN Global Compact on Migration), as well as domestic legislation regulating migration and countering disinformation were considered as source data. Results and scientific contribution: as a result of the study the main gaps in the legal regulation of countering misinformation in the migration sphere were identified. It was found that misinformation in this area is often used to manipulate public opinion and provoke interethnic tensions. The scientific contribution of the work consists in proposing specific measures to improve legal support, including the creation of international platforms for informing migrants, harmonization of legislation and strengthening control over the dissemination of inaccurate information. Scope of application of the results: the results of the study can be used to improve legislation in the field of migration and counteract misinformation, as well as to develop educational programs aimed at increasing media literacy of the population. The proposed measures can be applied both at the national and international levels to reduce the level of misinformation and strengthen interethnic dialog.

Ethnic Prejudice in Adolescent: The Role of Cultural Intelligence, Intergroup Contact and Ethnocentrism as Mediator

This study aims to examine the effect of cultural intelligence and intergroup contact on ethnic prejudice in adolescents, with ethnocentrism as a mediating variable. The study was conducted on 308 adolescents using a quantitative approach and analyzed using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) through the JASP program. The results showed that the resulting model had adequate fit (SRMR = 0.070; RMSEA = 0.092; CFI = 0.902; GFI = 0.983). Directly, cultural intelligence had a significant positive effect on ethnic prejudice, while intergroup contact had a significant negative effect on ethnic prejudice. Ethnocentrism also showed a strong positive effect on ethnic prejudice. The analysis of the mediation effect revealed that mediating ethnocentrism significantly affected cultural intelligence and intergroup contact on ethnic prejudice. These findings suggests that an increase in cultural intelligence or frequency of contact does not necessarily decrease ethnic prejudice without decrease in the level of ethnocentrism. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed in the context of developing interventions to reduce ethnic prejudice among adolescents.

Translating affective manifestation

Abstract This study explores how affective manifestations are translated and received by studying the intra-ethnic, inter-ethnic, and social/political tensions presented in Alfian Sa’at’s Malay Sketches. The results reveal that Alfian used relevant scenarios and encounters as the prevalent means of affective manifestation, with translanguaging narration and conversation. Additionally, Alfian utilized cultural and historical references featured more often in stories about inter-ethnic tension and social/political tension, respectively. Regarding affective reception among ST and TT audiences, authors may wish to convey affects to readers to motivate them to take action, which is enabled by the process of affective reception, encompassing (1) the cognizance of the intended affect and (2) the perception of empathy. In addition, the translator of Malay Sketches acts as a mediator to simultaneously attend to linguistic and cultural transmissions. To fill the contextual lacuna and ensure the successful delivery of intended affects, the translator often employs annotation and alteration strategies.

1 Samuel 25:23–28 and Conflict Resolution in Nigeria: A Literary Reading

This study aims to explore the application of the biblical passage 1 Samuel 25:23–28 in addressing and resolving conflicts in Nigeria. The study identifies several key conflict resolution strategies from Abigail’s actions, including humility, strategic communication, proactive peacemaking, and the appeal to higher principles. These strategies are found to be relevant and potentially effective in addressing conflicts in Nigeria, particularly in contexts marked by ethnic, religious, and political tensions. Nigeria, Africa's most populous nation, is a country rich in cultural diversity, natural resources, and economic potential. However, it has been beset by numerous conflicts over the years, ranging from ethnic and religious violence to political instability and resource-based disputes. The aphorism in I Samuel 25:23–28 is important in understanding the underlying causes and dynamics of these conflicts, and it is essential for developing effective resolution strategies. Data is gathered from biblical commentaries, theological texts, and scholarly articles. Emerged themes are: i) respect and humility; ii) taking responsibility and mediation; iii) acknowledging wrongdoing and deflecting blame; iv) appealing to higher principles; v) offering reparation and tangible solutions; and vi) seeking forgiveness and affirming positive outcomes. These strategies are found to be relevant and potentially effective in addressing conflicts in Nigeria, particularly in contexts marked by ethnic, religious, and political tensions. Abigail's approach, characterised by humility, tact, and moral persuasion, can serve as a model for contemporary peacemakers.

Conspiracy to Commit: Information Pollution, Artificial Intelligence, and Real-World Hate Crime

Conspiracy to Commit: Information Pollution, Artificial Intelligence, and Real-World Hate Crime

Reflexivity: A Constructive Dissection of the Self as a Black South African Woman

I construed issues of race and racism in a constellatory way before 2019. Shamefully, although I was aware that racism existed, I narrowed my perceptual field to construe racism as other Black people’s problems, which did not involve me. I failed to construe that some constructions of myself were shaped by how I construed Blacks in relation to Whites. I construed Black people’s painful stories of racism in democratic South Africa as a strategy to continue shaming White people. In my narrowed field of perception, I construed myself to lack commonality with Blacks because I did not experience racial attacks until adulthood. However, reflectively, I construed that the underprivileged location where I grew up meant I was encountering the legacy of colonization and Apartheid. In this reflexive paper, I explore how I used constriction when desiring to be whitened. I used personal construct techniques to examine the root of my desire to be a White person and my journey to become proud of who I am as a Black South African woman.

‘That politics thing’: young people’s narratives of connection and collaboration in the age of Brexit

ABSTRACT On 23 June 2016 the British electorate voted to leave the European Union (EU). The referendum campaign and the aftermath of the vote were marked by a spike in hate crimes fuelled by anti-Muslim and anti-immigrant discourse. This article offers an analysis of qualitative group interviews designed to gain insights into young people’s sense of belonging during this period. Data was collected from young people aged 14–24, based in schools and youth groups located in the northwest of England. The fearful effects of Brexit were reflected in many of the interviews; however, a dominant theme was a desire for dialogue, connection and intercultural mixing. Drawing from Spinoza’s theory of the affects, this article shows how the young people’s narratives provide the basis for forms of civic education that offer greater educative and ontological possibilities than agonistic approaches or governmental requirements focused on shared national values.

Discrimination during the COVID-19 pandemic against Asian Americans: Links to sleep and romantic relationships as context.

The COVID-19 pandemic has been a period of increased discrimination and hate crimes against Asian Americans. This study examines links between discrimination, as well as feelings of vulnerability, and sleep difficulties among Asian Americans during this time period. In addition, the study investigates both supportive and conflictual romantic partner interactions related to topics of discrimination, race, and activism as possible moderators of this association. During the COVID-19 pandemic, 92 partnered Asian American adults (Mage = 35.0, 63.0% women) completed online surveys that assessed discrimination, feelings of vulnerability, sleep, discrimination-specific partner support, and partner conflict about anti-Asian racism. Cross-sectionally, discrimination during the COVID-19 pandemic was associated with greater sleep difficulties. Feelings of vulnerability in light of Asian hate crimes were additionally associated with greater sleep difficulties. Neither discrimination-specific partner support nor partner conflict about anti-Asian racism buffered these associations. The present study extends emerging research on discrimination and sleep. Findings point to the significance of evaluating discrimination and emotional reactions to racialized events as potential contributors to sleep difficulties among Asian Americans. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

“But Karachi is Always Dual”: Cartography, Placemaking, and Identity in Kamila Shamsie’s Kartography

ABSTRACT This paper examines Kamila Shamsie’s Kartography and its use of mapping as a tool to navigate Karachi’s intricate socio-political and cultural landscape, highlighting the role of place in the (re)formation of identity. Drawing on Robert Tally’s “placemindedness,” Yi-Fu Tuan’s and Doreen Massey’s theories of place, and Denis Cosgrove and Nigel Thrift’s insights on mapping, this paper analyses how Karim and Raheen, of Bengali and Muhajir heritage, negotiate identity amid ethnic tensions and cultural divides. Kartography conceptualizes Karachi as a dynamic spatial entity through dual mapping strategies: one affectively experiential and intimate, the other structurally analytical and relational. This dual approach culminates in an alternative, hypertextual digital map that integrates individual affect with critical social awareness. The novel’s cartographic metaphor underscores the city’s layered identity, mediating between memory, belonging, and alienation. By transforming cartography into a mode of critique, Shamsie redefines how we read cities, identities, and postcolonial and post-partitioned space.

Being Muslim in a time of fear: intersectional realities of visibility, vulnerability, and resilience in Canada

ABSTRACT Hate crimes, like Islamophobia, have created unprecedented concern in Canada, particularly for visibly Muslim individuals. This SSHRC-funded study examines the lives of South Asian Muslim youth in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) through 49 semi-structured interviews. Using Crenshaw's intersectional model, this article explores the ways in which race, religion, gender, and immigration status, shape Muslims, especially visibly marked women, as targets of fear, control, and government surveillance. The study underscores how physical markers like the hijab intensify Islamophobic experiences, creating gendered forms of exclusion and hyper-surveillance. While factors like age, class, or immigration status did not significantly alter these experiences, institutional and cultural locations played critical roles. Participants expressed mistrust in conventional support systems and highlighted the lack of culturally responsive mental health services. Building on Zine, J. [2006. “Unveiled Sentiments: Gendered Islamophobia and Experiences of Veiling among Muslim Girls in a Canadian Islamic School.” Equity & Excellence in Education 39 (3): 239–252] and Perry, B. [2015. “‘All of a Sudden, There Are Muslims': Visibilities and Islamophobic Violence in Canada.” International Journal for Crime, Justice & Social Democracy 4 (3)], the findings offer a more nuanced understanding of intersectional Islamophobia and its effects on Muslim youth in Canada.

Hybrid Majorette and Democratic Models in Central Asia: Navigating Political Instability and Fostering Solidarity in Kyrgyzstan

This study delves into how integrating hybrid majorette leadership with democratic governance could help ease political instability and promote national unity in Kyrgyzstan. As a post-Soviet nation with political turmoil—Tulip Revolution (2005) and October Revolution (2020)—Kyrgyzstan faces various issues, including corruption, ethnic tensions, and regional inequalities. Hybrid majorette governance, which is marked by centralized power, charismatic leaders, and informal networks, has brought some short-term stability but often falls short of inclusivity and transparency. On the other hand, democratic systems focus on citizen participation and institutional accountability. The study argues that combining these models can enhance political legitimacy and social cohesion. In particular, integrating traditional institutions like the “Kurultai”—a historic assembly of the people; into democratic frameworks provides a culturally relevant way to connect elite authority with grassroots participation. This hybrid model could lead to strong leadership while empowering communities through participatory processes. By striking a balance between centralized control and public involvement, this dual governance strategy might help Kyrgyzstan address its internal divisions, ease ethnic conflicts, and create a more resilient political landscape. The study explored the practical challenges and potential advantages of adopting the Hybrid Majorette, highlighting the need to tailor governance reforms to Kyrgyzstan’s distinct socio-political environment.

Minority identity in the making? Conceptualization and operationalization of national and ethnic minorities in the case law of the European Court of Human Rights

Abstract It is well known that the European Convention on Human Rights aims to remedy violations of individual human rights, i.e., it is not an instrument for the protection of minorities. However, the European Court of Human Rights has the potential to protect minority communities indirectly by interpreting Convention rights in the context of non-discrimination. This judicial role cannot be overestimated since ethnic and national tensions are crucial social problems of our time that can be resolved peacefully by legal means based on a desirable European consensus. However, for this to happen, it is first necessary to identify what a minority is (conceptualization) and who belongs to a minority group (operationalization). Through the analysis of selected cases, this article shows how far the Court has gone on this path and what major elements of conceptualization and operationalization can be identified in its jurisprudence. Shortcomings and missed opportunities in the Court's reasoning will also be pointed out. With respect to conceptualization, we claim that the theoretical concept of a minority can implicitly be identified in the Strasbourg case law, with minority identity as its central element. In accordance with this, the main method of operationalization for the Court is self-identification, along with the (often explicit) acceptance of the objective criteria of minority membership.

Issues of Minorities in India and Afghanistan: A comparative analysis of Particular Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTGs), and Hazara Group

This research paper is an analysis and examines the systemic marginalisation of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTGs) in India and the Hazara community in Afghanistan, focusing on their socio-economic, cultural, and political challenges. In Afghanistan, Hazaras face severe persecution under Taliban rule, including targeted killings and violence, political exclusion, cultural erasure, and restricted access to education and economic opportunities, rooted in historical ethnic tensions and exacerbated by the 2021 Taliban resurgence. In India, PVTGs , comprising 75 distinct communities, endure extreme socio-economic deprivation, characterized by low literacy, declining populations, geographic isolation, limited access to healthcare and livelihood, compounded displacement, and cultural disconnect. Despite differing contexts – authoritarian repression in Afghanistan and systemic neglect within India's democratic framework – groups experience exclusion, loss of cultural identity, and barriers to basic rights. The analysis underscores the urgency of addressing intersectional vulnerabilities – gender, caste, indignity, and religion – to ensure equitable development and human rights protection, aligning with global frameworks like the UN sustainable development goals.

How does hate hurt more? National evidence for the varying emotional impacts of hate crime

The last 20 years have witnessed a growth in the recognition of the profound negative impacts of hate crime. As a result, many criminal justice systems have adopted sentencing approaches that hold the perpetrator accountable for the additional harm these offences cause to victims. While this added sentencing penalty may be supported through a retributive lens, and the wider ‘signalling’ element of these offences, there is comparatively little robust empirical evidence which demonstrates that hate crimes hurt victims more than similar non-hate crimes. This lack of evidence leaves open the possibility that the harms of hate crime could be challenged and the sentencing approaches threatened. Using 8 years (2012/13-2019/20) of the nationally representative Crime Survey for England and Wales, hierarchical linear modelling was used to disentangle the unique emotional impact of hate-motivated violence (from non-hate-motivated violence) and hate-motivated vandalism (from non-hate-motivated vandalism). The results support the notion that hate hurts more, particularly for racist and homophobic violence and gender and disability-related vandalism. However, victims of religiously motivated vandalism did not report greater emotional impacts than those who experienced non-religiously motivated vandalism. The limitations and implications of these unique results are discussed.