Harsh Parenting Practices Research Articles

A Study on the Relationship between Parental Parenting Styles and Adolescent Attachment Decision Making Styles

This study investigates the associations between perceived parenting styles, attachment orientations, and decision - making styles among adolescents. Employing a cross - sectional, correlation research design, data were collected from 197 eighth - grade students (111 boys and 86 girls) Participants completed self - reported scales measuring perceived parenting styles, attachment styles, and decision - making styles. The results revealed a significant positive correlation between parental responsiveness and secure attachment, highlighting the crucial role of parental warmth and support in fostering secure attachments during adolescence. Conversely, a significant correlation was found between parental control and fearful attachments, indicating the adverse effects of harsh and inconsistent parenting practices on attachment patterns. . These findings underscore the importance of responsive parenting in nurturing secure attachment bonds and advocate for culturally sensitive approaches to understanding parenting styles. Further research is warranted to explore parental influences on adolescent decision - making across diverse cultural contexts, with implications for tailored interventions aimed at promoting positive outcomes in adolescents' development.

Harsh parenting trajectories from childhood through adolescence and socioemotional competences at age 18: 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort Study

BackgroundLimited research has explored the course of harsh parenting practices throughout childhood and adolescence and its impact on socioemotional competences from a longitudinal perspective. This study examined the association between harsh parenting trajectories and socioemotional competences at age 18. MethodsData from the 2004 Pelotas (Brazil) Birth Cohort study, originally comprising 4231 live births, were used. Harsh parenting was measured using the parent-report version of the Parent–Child Conflict Tactics Scale at ages 6, 11, 15 and 17 years, and trajectories were identified using a group-based modelling approach. Socioemotional competences were emotion regulation, assessed by the Emotional Regulation Index for Children and Adolescents; self-esteem, measured by the self-report Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale; prosocial behaviour and peer relationship problems, both assessed by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Multivariate linear and Poisson regression models were applied to examine the effects of harsh parenting trajectories on socioemotional competences, adjusting for confounding variables. ResultsWe identified three trajectories: a “low harsh parenting” trajectory (49.7 %), a “moderate harsh parenting” (44.7 %), and a “high harsh parenting” trajectory (5.6 %). Compared to those belonging to the low harsh parenting trajectory group, adolescents who experienced either a moderate or high harsh parenting trajectory exhibited lower scores in emotion regulation, self-esteem, and prosocial behaviour scales, along with higher scores of peer relationships problems. LimitationsData on harsh parenting at 15 and 17 years were available only for a sub-sample. ConclusionsOur study extends the evidence of the adverse effects of persistent harsh parenting on socioemotional competences during adolescence.

Testing the Spillover Effect of Intimate Partner Violence Victimization on Emotionally Abusive and Harsh Parenting Practices: The Application of Propensity Score Matching.

Prior research reported a significant association between intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization and negative parenting, but there was an overreliance on U.S. samples and families from low socioeconomic status backgrounds. Therefore, this quasi-experimental study examined the association between recent IPV victimization and abusive parenting practices in a sample of community-based women from Poland. Participants were mothers of children aged 2 to 5 years (N = 610) attending an outpatient clinic located in a city in south-eastern Poland. Mothers were asked about their IPV experiences in the past 12 months and were classed as either IPV positive or IPV negative. Outcome measures assessed emotionally abusive and harsh parenting practices. All data were collected online. To reduce bias in background characteristics (i.e., age, education, employment status, financial distress, self-esteem, childhood violence history, alcohol problems, current mental distress, social support, exposure to COVID-19-pandemic-related stressors, and child sex), we applied the propensity score matching (PSM) technique. Group differences before and after matching were examined using independent samples t-tests. Prematching analyses revealed that IPV-positive mothers used significantly more emotionally abusive and harsh parenting practices than IPV-negative mothers. However, the two samples differed substantially on six background characteristics which are known risk factors for IPV and child maltreatment (financial distress, self-esteem, childhood violence history, current mental distress, social support, and exposure to COVID-19-pandemic-related stressors). PSM was successful in reducing those imbalances. Postmatching group comparisons were statistically nonsignificant for emotionally abusive and harsh parenting, disproving the spillover hypothesis. We conclude that IPV victimization is not related to emotionally abusive and harsh parenting practices when controlling for confounding variables.

Modeling trajectories of physical aggression from infancy to pre-school age, their early predictors, and school-age outcomes.

This study identified latent trajectories of physical aggression (TPA) from infancy to preschool age and evaluated (a) effects of early parent, parenting and child predictors on TPA as well as on social, behavioral, and academic functioning in Grade 2, and (b) TPA effects net of early predictor effects on Grade 2 functioning. We used data from the Behavior Outlook Norwegian Developmental Study (BONDS), which included 1,159 children (559 girls). Parents reported on risk and protective factors, and on physical aggression from 1 to 5 years of age; teachers reported on Grade 2 outcomes. We employed latent class growth curve analyses and identified nine TPA. In fully adjusted models simultaneously testing all associations among predictors, trajectories, and outcomes, maternal and paternal harsh parenting, child gender, and sibling presence predicted TPA, which significantly predicted externalizing and academic competence in Grade 2. Child gender had a pervasive influence on all outcomes as well as on TPA. To our knowledge, this is the first trajectory study to determine which predictors are most proximal, more distal, or just confounded, with their relative direct effect sizes, and to link early paternal as well as maternal harsh parenting practices with children's TPA. Our findings underscore the need to include fathers in developmental research and early prevention and intervention efforts.

Life Experiences Represented by Tattoos and Scars on Body Maps of Male Adolescents in Conflict with the Law

This qualitative study aimed at exploring the life experiences represented by tattoos and scars of adolescent males in conflict with the law. The adolescent participants were detained in restrictive placement at what was then called Special Youth Centres. A case study design guided the research, which was conducted in 2010/2011. Fifteen unstructured interviews were conducted with five participants. Body maps were used as visual data-collection strategy. Three themes were identified from the transcripts. First, the contextual factors that characterised the living situations of participants. Second, narratives of pain and suffering were linked to the scars indicated on body maps. Most scars could be linked to domestic violence, physical abuse, harsh parenting practices, and gang involvement. The third theme outlined the link between tattoos and gangs. Participants expressed the negative consequences of such tattoos and described how emotions triggered them to get new tattoos. Two conclusions can be drawn: families should offer a safe haven to children, but often do not; while gangs offer protection, identity and access to commodities, with negative short- and long-term consequences.

Predictors of harsh parenting practices and inter-partner conflict during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario, Canada: a cross-sectional analysis from the Ontario Parent Survey

ObjectivesGuided by the bioecological model, the purpose of this study was to examine the associations of (1) individual level factors (sociodemographic, health behaviour and mental health), (2) family (micro) level...

Parent training for 842 families experiencing disruptive child behavior across 19 Danish community sites: A benchmark effectiveness study.

Interactional processes between child and parents, in particular harsh and coercive parenting practices, have been established as important factors maintaining and shaping the developmental trajectory of disruptive child behavior. The Incredible Years Parent Training (IYPT) is a well-established evidence-based program targeting negative parent-child interactions in families with children exhibiting high levels of disruptive behaviors. There are, however, few studies investigating the effectiveness of the IYPT when implemented in established practice settings independently from research environments. Also, very little evidence exists for the program's effectiveness for school-aged children. The IYPT was administered to consecutive groups of parents (N = 842) across 19 Danish community sites during the period from 2012 to 2019. Pre and post data were collected using the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory (ECBI). By means of a benchmark approach, the effectiveness of the intervention was compared with that of two European effectiveness randomized controlled trials. Large effect sizes were seen from pre to post for both parent-reported number of problematic disruptive child behaviors (ECBI Problem subscale; d = 1.51, p = 0.000, 95% CI [9.06-10.01]) and frequency of these behaviors (ECBI Intensity subscale; d = 1.15, p = 0.000,95% CI [29.33-32.73]). Treatment effects found in this study are comparable to or larger than those found in previous effectiveness studies and show the IYPT to be an effective intervention when implemented across a range of different community settings in a large community sample of children across an age span of 2 to 12 years.

Sensitive infant caregiving among the rural Gusii in Kenya

ABSTRACT The Gusii in rural Kenya represent a particularly interesting community for the study of sensitivity, as they have previously been described as not showing sensitive care. This study focuses on the observation of sensitivity in seven families with a 7-to 23-month-old infant, with extensive naturalistic video observations (ca. 2–4 h per infant) in a multiple caregiver setting, and potential co-existing harsh parenting practices. The average score for received sensitive caregiving was rather low at 5.3, but four out of seven infants were rated as receiving at least adequately sensitive care. Sensitivity was mostly expressed non-verbally in the form of (subtle) physical responsiveness by a variety of caregivers, and seen to a high extent during infant feeding. Insensitivity was seen when caregivers were occupied with chores, and during infant bathing. Results are discussed in terms of the nature of sensitive caregiving among the Gusii, and factors that might explain within-group differences.

Preschool-aged children’s hair cortisol and parents’ behavior, psychopathology, and stress

Parental factors, including parenting behavior, parent mental health, and parent stress, are associated with child stress. More recently, studies have shown that these parental factors may also be associated with children’s hair cortisol concentration (HCC). HCC is a novel biomarker for chronic stress. HCC indexes cumulative cortisol exposure thereby reflecting longer-term stress reactivity. Although HCC is associated with a range of problems in adults such as depression, anxiety, appraisal of stressful events, and diabetes, studies investigating HCC in children have been inconsistent, with particularly little information about parental factors and HCC. As chronic stress may have long-term physiological and emotional effects on children, and parent-based interventions can reduce these effects, it is important to identify parental factors that relate to children’s HCC. The aim of this study was to examine associations between preschool-aged children’s physiological stress measured via HCC and mother- and father-reported parenting behavior, psychopathology, and stress. Participants included N = 140 children ages 3–5-years-old and their mothers (n = 140) and fathers (n = 98). Mothers and fathers completed questionnaire measures on their parenting behavior, depressive and anxiety symptoms, and perceived stress. Children’s HCC was assessed by processing small hair samples. HCC levels were higher in boys compared to girls, and higher in children of color compared to white children. There was a significant association between children’s HCC and fathers’ authoritarian parenting. Children’s HCC was positively associated with physical coercion, a specific facet of fathers’ authoritarian parenting, even after accounting for sex of the child, race/ethnicity of the child, stressful life events, fathers’ depression, fathers’ anxiety, and fathers’ perceived stress. In addition, there was a significant interaction between higher levels of both mothers’ and fathers’ authoritarian parenting and children’s HCC. Children’s HCC was not significantly related to mothers’ and fathers’ anxiety and depression or mothers’ and fathers’ perceived stress. These findings contribute to the large literature that links harsh and physical parenting practices with problematic outcomes in children.

Disrupting the Link between Corporal Punishment Exposure and Adolescent Aggression: The Role of Teacher-Child Relationships

Previous research has identified harsh parenting practices, such as corporal punishment, as a predictor of adolescent behaviour problems such as increased aggression. However, not all children who experience childhood corporal punishment develop increased aggression, making the illumination of factors moderating this link an important question for informing prevention. In the current study, an autoregressive cross-lagged panel model was used to examine teacher-child relationships as both a direct and interactive protective factor (via weakening the effects of corporal punishment exposure) in adolescent aggression. Data was used from the Zurich Project on the Social Development from Childhood to Adulthood (z-proso). Self-reported data was collected at three time points: age 11 (n = 1144, 49% female) age 13 (n = 1366, 49% female) and age 15 (n = 1447, 48% female). Results suggested having a positive teacher-child relationship was a direct protective factor against concurrent aggression. However, there was not consistent evidence for a moderating effect of teacher-child relationships. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Impact of Poverty on Parent-Child Relationships, Parental Stress, and Parenting Practices.

Objectives:To explore the impact of poverty on parent–child relationships, parental stress and parenting practices.DesignA mixed methods study.SampleFour hundred and eighty five Hong Kong Chinese parents who had children aged 3-6 years, and who were from low-income families. Eleven of these parents were randomly selected for individual semi-structured interviews.MeasurementsA sociodemographic questionnaire, the parent–child relationship score, the Parental Stress Scale and the Perceived Parental Aggression Scale.ResultsThe parents were found to have an impaired relationship with their children. The findings indicated that employment status, parental stress and harsh parenting were significantly associated with parent–child relationships. The qualitative findings revealed that parents from low-income families encountered a wide range of difficulties, which made these parents more likely to experience parental stress, thereby increasing their tendency to adopt harsh parenting practices that undermined parent–child relationships.ConclusionThis study sheds light on the associations between parent–child relationships, parental stress and parenting practices in low-income families. These findings will enhance nurses' understanding of the impact of poverty on parent–child relationships, and highlight the need for nurses to ensure that underprivileged parents and their children receive adequate primary care to prevent the development of psychological problems in this vulnerable group.

Cognitive reactivity and emotional dysregulation mediate the relation of paternal and maternal harsh parenting to adolescent social anxiety

BackgroundExtant models of the association between harsh parenting and social anxiety among adolescents are mostly partial mediation models, leaving much of the relationship unaccounted for. ObjectiveThe current study intends to test a two-mediator model in which adolescents' cognitive reactivity and emotional dysregulation were assumed to mediate the potential impact of harsh parenting on their social anxiety. Participants and settingsA sample of 726 adolescent students with their parents was recruited from two middle schools located in a provincial city of Northern China. MethodsBoth fathers and mothers were required to report on their spouse's harsh parenting practices. The “Behind your back” task was used to assess cognitive reactivity of adolescents who also reported on their emotional dysregulation and social anxiety. Moderated mediation model and simple slope analyses were used to examine the meditational relations and the moderating role of child sex. ResultsFor the current model, cognitive reactivity and emotional dysregulation could completely mediate the potential influence of harsh fathering and harsh mothering on adolescents' social anxiety. Moreover, harsh fathering has a greater effect on adolescents' social anxiety than harsh mothering, especially for girls. ConclusionsCognitive reactivity in conjunction with emotional dysfunction can better account for the relationship from harsh fathering and harsh mothering to adolescents' social anxiety.

The role of harsh parenting practices in early- to middle-childhood socioemotional development: An examination in the Millennium Cohort Study.

Patterson's coercion model describes a gradual escalation in maladaptive parent–child transactions whereby externalizing behaviors lead to increases in maladaptive parenting and vice versa. The current study investigates the role of (predominantly mother‐reported) harsh parenting practices in the within‐person development of conduct problems, hyperactive/inattentive behaviors, and emotional problems. A random‐intercept cross‐lagged panel model was fit across ages 3, 5, and 7 (N = 14,037, 49% female, 84% White) using the UK population‐representative Millennium Cohort Study. Findings support Patterson's coercion model, providing evidence for reciprocal within‐family relations between parenting practices and child behaviors. They suggest the importance of addressing parenting difficulties in families where children present with socioemotional difficulties in order to help prevent the accumulation of additional issues.

Adverse childhood experiences, parenting, and socioeconomic status: Associations with internalizing and externalizing symptoms in adolescence

BackgroundAdverse childhood experiences (ACEs), low socioeconomic status (SES), and harsh parenting practices each represent well-established risk factors for mental health problems. However, research supporting these links has often focused on only one of these predictors and psychopathology, and interactions among these variables in association with symptoms are not well understood. ObjectiveThe current study utilized a cross-sectional, multi-informant, and multi-method design to investigate the associations of ACEs, SES, parenting, and concurrent internalizing and externalizing problems in adolescents. Participants and settingData are from a volunteer sample of 97 adolescents and their caregivers recruited from 2018 to 2021 in a southern U.S. metropolitan area to sample a range of exposure to ACEs. MethodsMultiple linear regression models were used to assess associations among adolescents' ACEs exposure, SES, observed parenting practices, and symptoms of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. ResultsLower SES was associated with higher levels of internalizing and externalizing symptoms, while higher ACEs exposure and observed parenting were related to externalizing but not internalizing symptoms. Associations of adolescents' exposure to physical abuse and perceived financial insecurity with externalizing symptoms were moderated by warm and supportive parenting behaviors. Conversely, harsh parenting was linked to increased levels of externalizing symptoms, particularly in the context of low income. ConclusionsFindings suggest that the presence of multiple risk factors may incur greater vulnerability to externalizing problems, while warm and supportive parenting practices may provide a buffer against externalizing problems for adolescents exposed to physical abuse. Links between ACEs, SES, parenting, and youth adjustment should continue to be explored, highlighting parenting as a potentially important and malleable intervention target.

The relation between harsh parenting and bullying involvement and the moderating role of child inhibitory control: A population-based study.

Harsh parenting has been linked to children's bullying involvement in three distinct roles: perpetrators, targets (of bullying), and perpetrator‐targets. To understand how the same parenting behavior is associated with three different types of bulling involvement, we examined the moderating roles of children's inhibitory control and sex. In addition, we differentiated between mothers’ and fathers’ harsh parenting. We analyzed multi‐informant questionnaire data from 2131 families participating in the Dutch Generation R birth cohort study. When children were three years old, parents reported on their own harsh parenting practices. When children were four, mothers reported on their children's inhibitory control. At child age six, teachers reported on children's bullying involvement. Our results revealed that fathers’, and not mothers’, harsh parenting increased the odds of being a perpetrator. No moderation effects with children's inhibitory control and sex were found for the likelihood of being a perpetrator. Moderation effects were present for the likelihood of being a target and a perpetrator‐target, albeit only with mothers’ harsh parenting. Specifically, for boys with lower‐level inhibitory control problems, mothers’ harsh parenting increased the odds of being a target. In contrast, for boys with higher‐level inhibitory control problems, mothers’ harsh parenting decreased the odds of being a target. Furthermore, for girls with higher‐level inhibitory control problems, mothers’ harsh parenting increased the odds of being a perpetrator‐target. Overall, our results underscore the importance of differentiating by children's cognitive skills and by parent and child sex to fully understand how harsh parenting and bullying involvement are related.

Expressed Emotion and Attributions in Parents With Schizophrenia.

We examined expressed emotion (EE) and attributions in parents with schizophrenia and compared them to parents without serious mental illness (SMI) in order to better understand the emotional climate of families in which a parent has schizophrenia. Parenting practices and parental reports of child behavior were also compared between the two groups. The relationship of EE to attributions was examined in each group separately. Relationships between parental mental health, EE, and attributions were explored in the parents with schizophrenia only. The Camberwell Family Interview was used to determine both EE and attributions in 20 parents with schizophrenia and 20 parents without SMI. We found that more parents with schizophrenia were rated as high EE than those without (60 and 35%, respectively) although this was not a statistically significant difference. Parents with schizophrenia demonstrated significantly more hostility and criticism toward their children than those without SMI and made more child-blaming attributions. Blame was associated with increased hostility, less warmth, and fewer positive remarks. Parental warmth was related to greater parenting self-efficacy, less harsh parenting practices, better child behavior, and a more positive parent–child relationship. We conclude that EE and attributions are potential explanatory variables to be considered in the development of preventative and early intervention strategies for families with a parent with schizophrenia or other psychotic disorder. Blame and warmth are modifiable factors that could be targeted within family and parenting interventions.

Prefrontal cortex and amygdala anatomy in youth with persistent levels of harsh parenting practices and subclinical anxiety symptoms over time during childhood

Childhood adversity and anxiety have been associated with increased risk for internalizing disorders later in life and with a range of brain structural abnormalities. However, few studies have examined the link between harsh parenting practices and brain anatomy, outside of severe maltreatment or psychopathology. Moreover, to our knowledge, there has been no research on parenting and subclinical anxiety symptoms which remain persistent over time during childhood (i.e., between 2.5 and 9 years old). Here, we examined data in 94 youth, divided into four cells based on their levels of coercive parenting (high / low) and of anxiety (high / low) between 2.5 and 9 years old. Anatomical images were analyzed using voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and FreeSurfer. Smaller gray matter volumes in the prefrontal cortex regions and in the amygdala were observed in youth with high versus low levels of harsh parenting over time. In addition, we observed significant interaction effects between parenting practices and subclinical anxiety symptoms in rostral anterior cingulate cortical thickness and in amygdala volume. These youth should be followed further in time to identify which youth will or will not go on to develop an anxiety disorder, and to understand factors associated with the development of sustained anxiety psychopathology.

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children's Conduct Problems and Callous-Unemotional Traits.

The COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically altered family life, but whether family exposures to and worries about the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted child conduct problems (CP) and callous-unemotional (CU) traits is unknown. Thus, we evaluated 303 parents (Mage = 38.04; SD = 5.21; 92.4% biological mothers) and children (Mage = 6.43; SD = 2.13; 51.8% female) during a four-month period early in the pandemic. We examined associations between parental exposures to COVID-19, parental worries about the pandemic, harsh and warm parenting practices, and child CP and CU traits. Although more parental worries were not directly related to parenting practices, more worry about COVID-19 was specifically related to higher levels of child CP, particularly parental worries about themselves or family members contracting the virus. Our findings add to a growing literature demonstrating the burden that the pandemic has placed on families and its implications for children’s mental health.Supplementary Information The online version of this article (10.1007/s10578-020-01109-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Alcohol dependence running in a family.

Alcohol dependence running in a family.

Ethnicity and Parental Discipline Practices: A Cross‐National Comparison

AbstractObjectiveExamine whether the relationship between ethnicity and parental discipline practices is consistent across contexts.BackgroundHarsh discipline has been linked to negative child behaviors and adolescent outcomes. In examining harsh discipline, scholars have observed ethnic differences.MethodsWe use the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study‐Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS‐K) for the United States and the Millennium Cohort Study (MCS) for the United Kingdom. The samples include parents of children aged 7–11 years old (ECLS‐K N = 13,008, MCS N = 11,113). Using logistic regression, we model the associations between parental ethnicity and five disciplinary strategies (spanking, yelling, sending to timeout, discussing, and withdrawing privileges).ResultsBlack parents in the United States were more likely to use harsh physical discipline, whereas all ethnic minorities in the United Kingdom exhibited higher odds of using harsh physical discipline than did White parents. By contrast, Hispanic parents and parents from a general Other ethnic category were less likely to use harsh verbal discipline in the United States than White parents are, and Black and Asian parents were less likely than White parents to use harsh verbal discipline in the United Kingdom. White parents were more likely than other ethnic groups to use timeout across countries. Black and Asian parents were less likely to discuss with children in the United Kingdom; compared to White and Asian parents in the United States had lower odds of using discussion as discipline, but Hispanic parents had higher odds.ConclusionsEthnic minority parents are likely resorting to harsh physical parenting practices to socialize their children into conforming to social norms that may protect them from negative repercussions in society.