Harmful Non-indigenous Species Research Articles

Developing a conceptual influence diagram for socio-eco-technical systems analysis of biofouling management in shipping – A Baltic Sea case study

Ship hulls create a vector for the transportation of harmful non-indigenous species (NIS) all over the world. To sustainably prevent NIS introductions, the joint consideration of environmental, economic and social aspects in the search of optimal biofouling management strategies is needed. This article presents a multi-perspective soft systems analysis of the biofouling management problem, based on an extensive literature review and expert knowledge collected in the Baltic Sea area during 2018–2020. The resulting conceptual influence diagram (CID) reveals the multidimensionality of the problem by visualizing the causal relations between the key elements and demonstrating the entanglement of social, ecological and technical aspects. Seen as a boundary object, we suggest the CID can support open dialogue and better risk communication among stakeholders by providing an illustrative and directly applicable starting point for the discussions. It also provides a basis for quantitative management optimization in the future.

Potential of invasive alien top predator as a biomonitor of nickel deposition – the case of American mink in Iceland

American mink Neovison vison is one of the most harmful non-indigenous species in Iceland and has been proven to be a useful indirect bioindicator and biomonitor for numerous environmental pollutants. Therefore, the main objective of the study was to determine the total nickel concentration in the spleen of 35 females and 30 males obtained from Brokey archipelago and the south coast of Hvammsfjörður (Dalabyggð, Iceland) using graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy. We also assessed the correlation between nickel concentration and selected anatomical and morphological parameters, hypothesising that invasive alien N. vison is a promising candidate species for biomonitoring the deposition of this trace element. The results indicated a substantial variation in nickel concentration in the spleen tissue of examined animals. For males, the maximum concentration exceeded the average level by more than 16 times, and for females by more than 7 times. The correlation coefficient between morphometric features and the level of nickel concentration in the spleen did not show a significant relationship in any of the tested combinations, for all tested animals or for each sex separately. In conclusion, American mink in Iceland can be considered a promising species for qualitative and quantitative assessment of ecosystems in terms of nickel pollution.

Resilience of cold water aquaculture: a review of likely scenarios as climate changes in the Gulf of Maine

AbstractClimate change is one of the biggest challenges facing development and continuation of sustainable aquaculture in temperate regions. We primarily consider the ecological and physical resilience of aquaculture in the Gulf of Maine (GoM), where a thriving industry includes marine algae, extensive and intensive shellfish aquaculture, and a well‐established Atlantic salmon industry, as well as the infrastructure required to support these economically important ventures. The historical record of sea surface temperature in the GoM, estimated from gridded, interpolated in situ measurements, shows considerable interannual and decade‐scale variability superimposed on an overall warming trend. Climate model projections of sea surface temperature indicate that the surface waters in the GoM could warm 0.5–3.5°C beyond recent values by the year 2100. This suggests that, while variability will continue, anomalous warmth of marine heatwaves that have been observed in the past decade could become the norm in the GoM ca. 2050, but with the most significant impacts to existing aquaculture along the southernmost region of the coast. We consider adaptations leading to aquacultural resilience despite the effects of warming, larger numbers of harmful nonindigenous species (including pathogens and parasites), acidification, sea‐level rise, and more frequent storms and storm surges. Some new species will be needed, but immediate attention to adapt existing species (e.g. preserve/define wild biodiversity, breed for temperature tolerance and incorporate greater husbandry) and aquaculture infrastructure can be successful. We predict that these measures and continued collaboration between industry, stakeholders, government and researchers will lead to sustaining a vibrant working waterfront in the GoM.

Characteristics of global port phytoplankton and implications for current ballast water regulations

The International Maritime Organization and U.S. Coast Guard have implemented regulations to reduce introductions of non-indigenous species via ballast water (BW). For phytoplankton, regulations limit discharges to <10 live/viable cells mL−1 (size: 10–50 μm), ignoring other size fractions. Additionally, challenge conditions of 100 (shipboard) and 1000 (land-based) cells mL−1 are required in BW management system certification testing. How these requirements correspond to natural phytoplankton populations is poorly resolved. We analyzed phytoplankton samples from 31 major ports to evaluate: a) how natural communities compare to challenge requirements and b) abundances of unregulated size fractions (i.e., <10 and ≥50 μm). None of the ports met land-based challenge conditions, and only 32% met requirements for shipboard testing. Approximately 71% of organisms ≥50 μm were centric diatoms, also unregulated by current protocols. This study demonstrates that current regulations do not consider natural phytoplankton populations, limiting control efforts for potentially harmful non-indigenous species.

Economic and Environmental Impacts of Harmful Non-Indigenous Species in Southeast Asia

Harmful non-indigenous species (NIS) impose great economic and environmental impacts globally, but little is known about their impacts in Southeast Asia. Lack of knowledge of the magnitude of the problem hinders the allocation of appropriate resources for NIS prevention and management. We used benefit-cost analysis embedded in a Monte-Carlo simulation model and analysed economic and environmental impacts of NIS in the region to estimate the total burden of NIS in Southeast Asia. The total annual loss caused by NIS to agriculture, human health and the environment in Southeast Asia is estimated to be US$33.5 billion (5th and 95th percentile US$25.8–39.8 billion). Losses and costs to the agricultural sector are estimated to be nearly 90% of the total (US$23.4–33.9 billion), while the annual costs associated with human health and the environment are US$1.85 billion (US$1.4–2.5 billion) and US$2.1 billion (US$0.9–3.3 billion), respectively, although these estimates are based on conservative assumptions. We demonstrate that the economic and environmental impacts of NIS in low and middle-income regions can be considerable and that further measures, such as the adoption of regional risk assessment protocols to inform decisions on prevention and control of NIS in Southeast Asia, could be beneficial.

Suggestions for the Improvement of the Invasive Alien Species Management in Korea - A Comparative Analysis of the Legal Framework for Invasive Alien Species between Japan and Korea

Introduction, establishment and invasion of alien species have caused worldwide environmental losses. To prevent the adverse effects of invasive alien species on ecosystems, human safety and agriculture, forestry and fisheries, Japan has enacted the Invasive Alien Species Act since 2005. Invasive Alien Species (IAS) and Uncategorized Alien Species (UAS) have been designated based on the potential adverse risks of alien species on ecosystems in Japan. The regulation on IAS and UAS have greatly reduced the importation of live wildlife in Japan, and these regulation system have been considered effective for reducing the introduction of alien species into Japan. In Korea, the harmful non-indigenous species has been regulated by the Natural Environment Conservation Act since 1998. According to the Act on Preservation and Use of Biodiversity Act (Biodiversity Act) that has been entered into force in February 2013, ecological risk assessment should be conducted for the import of potentially harmful alien species. This Act also covers the regulation of the alien species that seriously damage ecosystems (ecosystem-disturbing species), previously designated as harmful non-indigenous species. The procedures for the designation, import approval of the potentially harmful alien species and communication with stakeholder need to be improved for the efficient enforcement of the new Biodiversity Act in Korea.

Towards the integration of spread and economic impacts of biological invasions in a landscape of learning and imitating agents

We develop an agent-based model integrated with a spatial stochastic simulation harmful non-indigenous species (NIS) spread model in which farmers have learning and imitation capabilities. The model is applied to the western corn rootworm (WCR) invasion in the UK. The invasion is never eradicated due to the high dispersal capacity of WCR, particularly under climate change conditions. The lowest expected welfare losses arise with a laissez faire policy against the invasion. The effectiveness of NIS control programmes that require participation by land managers is shown to depend greatly on their learning and imitation dynamics. Control programmes might fail completely if there is global knowledge of the burdens of compliance – e.g. through the media – and the land managers can foresee the future consequences of new actions. This is due to coordinated noncompliance occurring across the landscape. If the agents need to experience compliance to learn its consequences or communicate only locally, potential noncompliant behaviour spreads more slowly than the invasion front and trails behind it. In conclusion, negative opinions of land managers over NIS control programmes and their media coverage can strongly undermine programmes. Identification and management of these factors may increase the odds of success of the programmes.

Antifouling strategies: History and regulation, ecological impacts and mitigation

Biofouling increases drag on marine vessels resulting in higher fuel consumption and can also facilitate the transport of harmful non-indigenous species (NIS). Antifouling technologies incorporating biocides (e.g., copper and tributyltin) have been developed to prevent settlement of organisms on vessels, but their widespread use has introduced high levels of contamination into the environment and raised concerns about their toxic effects on marine communities. The recent global ban on tributyltin (1 January 2008) and increasing regulation of copper have prompted research and development of non-toxic paints. This review synthesises existing information regarding the ecological impact of biocides in a wide range of organisms and highlights directions for the management of antifouling paints. We focus particularly on representatives of the recent past (copper and tributyltin) and present (copper and ‘booster’) biocides. We identify knowledge gaps in antifouling research and provide recommendations relating to the regulation and phasing-out of copper.

Comprehensive bioeconomic modelling of multiple harmful non-indigenous species

Harmful non-indigenous species (NIS) introductions lead to loss of biodiversity and serious economic impacts. Government agencies have to decide on the allocation of limited resources to manage the risk posed by multiple NIS. Bioeconomic modelling has focused on single species and little is known about the optimal management of multiple NIS using a common budget. A comprehensive bioeconomic model that considers the exclusion, detection and control of multiple NIS spreading by stratified dispersal and presenting Allee effects was developed and applied to manage the simultaneous risk posed by Colorado beetle, the bacterium causing potato ring rot and western corn rootworm in the UK. A genetic algorithm was used to study the optimal management under uncertainty. Optimal control methods were used to interpret and verify the genetic algorithm solutions. The results show that government agencies should allocate less exclusion and more control resources to NIS characterised by Allee effects, low rate of satellite colonies generation and that present low propagule pressure. The prioritisation of NIS representative of potential NIS assemblages increases management efficiency. The adoption of management measures based on the risk analysis of a single NIS might not correspond to the optimal allocation of resources when other NIS share a common limited budget. Comprehensive bioeconomic modelling of multiple NIS where Allee effects and stratified dispersal are considered leads to a more cost-effective allocation of limited resources for the management of NIS invasions.

Keeping Mars Clean

C. P. Mckay (“Biologically Reversible Exploration,” Policy Forum, 6 February, p. [718][1]) recommends that “COSPAR [the international Committee on Space Research] … set a policy that all Mars exploration be biologically reversible.” I agree; it allows rigorous scientific study of past and current life there without presupposing that it will be easily recognizable or accessible. However, several assertions may not go far enough to enable remediation, which could make cleanup politically or fiscally impossible. Key are clear statements as to the purpose and urgency of exploration that may contaminate; biological discovery and mining may not be compatible. McKay asserts that “hitchhiking organisms” exposed to the martian environment are killed quickly by ultraviolet (UV) solar radiation but that bacteria inside spacecraft may survive and remain dormant because of the dry conditions. This theory does not account for the environments beneath the surface. Biological contamination from a crashed vehicle could be buried by the impact or deposited by Mars'winds in UV-shielded crevasses far from the crash site. A nighttime introduction would not expose bacteria to UV, allowing them time to work into cracks or other protected niches. Second, the surface may be dry, but the Phoenix Mars Lander found water ice at 5 cm below the surface. Should bacteria reach subsurface liquid water, they could propagate rapidly. Third, the Policy Forum states that contaminants “will remain local and static and can be removed without requiring an effort vastly larger than the missions that carried the contamination.” Such conclusions don't account for wind dispersal of contaminants not exposed to UV or possible burial by meteor strikes or landslides. “Biologically reversible exploration” (putting off cleaning up) may be impossible given experiences on Earth. Remediation is often extremely expensive, requiring political resolve. In Hawaii, for example, there is no effective control that is affordable and politically feasible for scores of alien species. If an invasive weed cannot be controlled in Hawaii [as in the case of Miconia calvescens , an invasive tree ([ 1 ][2])], what are the probabilities that a microbe on Mars can be contained and eradicated? How would costs be apportioned among space-faring nations? Lastly, McKay posits that discovering martian life “may open discussions of warming Mars to help that alien life to flourish.” Although it is true that warming generally speeds metabolism, it may be prudent to complete noninvasive studies of martian life processes and its evolutionary path and critique our motives for intervention first. While human-initiated warming of the planet may help humans, it would not necessarily “help” endemic life that has adapted to the present martian environment. If a goal of exploration is mineral extraction, early contamination, and plenty of it, would best justify a later conclusion that Mars is too contaminated to clean; exploitation with decreased regard for contamination would be facilitated. As industries gain a foothold on Mars, their influence on governance there will strengthen. If COSPAR requires clean Mars vehicles, the astrobiological value of a more pristine Mars would be enhanced. Now is the time for caution, while it is still an option. 1. [↵][3] 1. L. L. Loope , “Harmful non-indigenous species report: Report for Miconia calvescens” (Haleakala National Park Field Station, USGS/BRD, 1997). [1]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1167987 [2]: #ref-1 [3]: #xref-ref-1-1 View reference 1 in text

Failure of the Lacey Act to protect US ecosystems against animal invasions

Harmful non-indigenous species may be introduced, either accidentally or intentionally, into the US through commerce, and may subsequently drive reductions in abundances of native species and changes in ecosystem function. The “injurious wildlife provision” of the Lacey Act (1900) is the primary legal tool protecting US non-agricultural ecosystems against the introduction and spread of invasive animal species. We evaluated the efficacy of this provision at disrupting the invasion processes involved in transport, introduction, establishment, and spread, and found that the wildlife provision prohibits importation of only 17 taxa. While the Lacey Act may have been somewhat effective at preventing transport into the country of the few taxa listed prior to their introduction, over half of listed taxa were already present in the US when listed, and most taxa already established in the wild continued to spread after listing. Currently, five taxa are being considered for listing. Mean time for a petitioned listin...

Biological and Cultural Camouflage: The Challenges of Seeing the Harmful Invasive Species Problem and Doing Something About It

This essay introduces a forthcoming volume addressing legal and policy responses to harmful non-indigenous species. Invasive species may be a more difficult problem to perceive than many other types of environmental problems, such as air or water pollution, extinction of species, or changes in land use. Some of the reasons for the difficulties in perception reflect the limits of everyday human observation of the natural environment. In addition, many non-indigenous plant and animal species serve as the cornerstones of modern agriculture and commerce. Drawing a line between welcome (strongly beneficial) and unwelcome (harmful or invasive) non-indigenous species is often difficult, a difficulty magnified when the harms and benefits from a species inure to different groups of people. Establishing sound law and policy with regard to invasive species would be hard enough if the puzzles were merely biological, psychological, economic and political. However, the ultimate questions about the law and policy with regard to non-indigenous species, and invasive species, reflect deep value preferences, values that reflect more general philosophical tenets that may border on religious beliefs. This morass of human and social dimensions swirling around the issue of invasive species makes the lack of coherent and comprehensive laws easier to understand, even in the face of longstanding recognition that some non-indigenous species could be very harmful indeed. After reviewing the disjunction between key international instruments and the laws of nation-states, with a focus on the possible meanings of a recommended precautionary principle in some of these instuments, the essay suggests three steps should come first: an assessment of the status of alien species in the country, a focus on prevention of new introductions, and the integration of a holistic approach, aware of the social, psychological and commercial aspects of the invasive species problem.

NIS, WTO, SPS, WIR*: Does the WTO Substanstially Limit the Ability of Countries to Regulate Harmful Non-Indigenous Species?

Do global trade regimes restrict countries from passing and enforcing their own strong domestic environmental standards? This Essay attempts to reign in the issue of the relationship between trade and domestic environmental policy by focusing on one test case - the new area of regulating harmful invasive species - and then asking whether current global trade regimes, and in particular the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement, would prevent the United States (or any other country) from implementing protective new laws and policies to address this new environmental concern. Part I sketches the new recognition in the United States (mirrored by increased awareness elsewhere) of the substantial environmental and economic threats posed by the introduction and spread of harmful non-indigenous species, and summarizes current proposals to develop new policies in this area. The proposals include recommendations that would impose additional barriers to trade. Part II focuses on the part of the WTO Agreement most likely to be the basis for challenging such a policy. The third part considers whether the WTO regime encourages a sound balance between encouraging rational policymaking and respecting national policies and preferences with regard to the environment (and to the health, safety, and welfare of its citizens more generally). The final Part asks whether challenges to an aggressive U.S. invasive species policy would be likely to succeed, and notes important structural limitations on the WTO process that make the answer hard to predict.

Harmful Non-Indigenous Species in the United States

Harmful Non-Indigenous Species in the United States