Hare Lepus Research Articles

Phylogenetic status and diet of red fox (Vulpes vulpes griffithii) inhabiting Ayubia National Park, Pakistan

Abstract The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is a medium-sized carnivore that occurs in different regions of Pakistan, however, still lacks scientific data on its ecology and distribution. The current study investigated the phylogenetic status and diet of the red fox (V.v. griffithii) occurring in Ayubia National Park, Pakistan. Through camera trapping and molecular analysis, we confirmed the occurrence of red fox in the study area. Based on mitochondrial cytochrome B (304 bp) and limited sampling, nearly all red foxes of Ayubia National Park and surrounding Himalayan ranges fall within Holarctic maternal lineage, whereas red foxes found in plains of Pakistan are part of the basal Palearctic maternal lineage. Using 32 scats, we found that red fox diet comprises of 80% animal-based prey species (both wild and domestic) and 19% plant matter. The wild animal prey species included Cape hare (Lepus capensis) and flying squirrel (Pteromyini sp.), which constituted 17% and 15% of diet, respectively. Red foxes infrequently consumed House mouse (Mus musculus), Himalayan Palm civet (Paguma larvata) and sheep (Ovis aries), each comprising around 6% to 9% of red fox diet. The fox species also scavenged on domestic donkey opportunistically. Based on our sampling, our study suggests that the red fox (V.v. griffithii) that occurs in Ayubia National Park and across the lesser Himalayan ranges belongs to Holarctic maternal lineage. The study also highlights consumption of plant seeds by red foxes, indicating it may play an important ecological role in seed dispersal in Ayubia National Park.

Орёл-могильник на юго-востоке Казахстана в 2022–2023 годах: распространение, численность, угрозы

Орёл-могильник на юго-востоке Казахстана в 2022–2023 годах: распространение, численность, угрозы

The Dynamics of Lepus granatensis and Oryctolagus cuniculus in a Mediterranean Agrarian Area: Are Hares Segregating from Rabbit Habitats after Disease Impact?

Simple SummaryHares (Lepus sp.) and rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are the two genera of lagomorph present in the Iberian Peninsula, and both are an essential element of the trophic chain in this region. The myxomatosis disease has produced mortalities in rabbits for decades, but this disease has recently jumped to the most widely distributed hare species in the Peninsula, the Iberian hare (Lepus granatensis). In this work, we analyzed the effects of this outbreak on the populations of both species in a Mediterranean agricultural landscape, and provide information about spatial and temporal patterns prior to and after the epidemic.The genera Oryctolagus and Lepus (order Lagomorpha) are essential elements in the trophic chain in the Iberian Peninsula, being the main prey of many predators, including some highly endangered predators such as the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus). Myxomatosis, a disease producing tumorations in conjunctive tissues, and produced by the Myxoma Virus, has caused mass mortalities in rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) for decades. Recently, the virus has jumped interspecifically from rabbits to hares, and this has created a depletion in hare populations, generating great concern. We analyzed the population dynamics and distribution of both lagomorph species in a Mediterranean agricultural area of the south of Spain since the 1990s with a combination of systematic and non-systematic data. The appearance of the outbreak in the Iberian hare (Lepus granatenis) in 2018 enabled us to undertake an opportunistic analysis of its effects on the spatial structure and assemblages, as well as on the niches of both species using PCA analyses and ordination techniques. Analysis of the mortality effect on daily and seasonal cycles was also conducted, and relations with the temporal dimension was tested using generalized lineal models (GLMs). In our results, in addition to population and temporal patterns, we could observe a restructuring in hare distribution after the mortality event, highlighting that prior to the outbreak, rabbit and hare populations were spatially differentiated, although with some overlaps and niche similarities. However, since the outbreak, hare populations have been excluded from rabbit areas, suggesting that in the absence of rabbits, the virus has more difficulties to infect hares. We also provide an overview of the effect of this population depletion on the ecological and socio-economic dimension of this region, pointing out the importance of this situation for the area.

The European Hare (Lepus europaeus) as a Biomonitor of Lead (Pb) and Cadmium (Cd) Occurrence in the Agro Biotope of Vojvodina, Serbia

Simple SummaryHeavy metals such as lead and cadmium are pollutants and can be found in different biotopes. Hares, due to their natural habitat, numbers, range and choice of food are good bioindicators of the occurrence of heavy metals. Vojvodina, northern province of Republic of Serbia, has intensive agriculture with about 77.8% of agricultural land. In such agricultural biotope, we discovered that out of the two studied heavy metals in the liver of hare’s it seems that the occurrence of lead is more of the importance. In the majority of locations the cadmium concentrations were in the permitted level by Serbian legislative. However, the situation with the occurrence of lead was completely different. Only on the two out of seventeen locations average concentrations were in the permitted level.The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of two heavy metals, lead and cadmium, in European hare liver samples, collected in agro biotope of northern Serbian province Vojvodina. Heavy metals such as lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) do not have any biological function in the animal body; however, they can be found due to the pollution in the environment. For the purpose of this study, in 196 samples from 17 different locations hare livers were analyzed for the occurrence of lead and cadmium. All samples were taken from hares harvested during the regular hunting season. The average value for lead in all analyzed samples was 884 µg/kg fresh weight (fw), with the range 59–3700 µg/kg fw. Only samples from two locations had the average concentration of lead which was within the permitted limit by the Serbian regulation. The average cadmium level in all samples was 243 µg/kg fw. The range of all samples was from 0 to 1414 µg/kg fw. Our research indicates that out of two investigated heavy metals, the occurrence of lead is more common and at a higher concentration in the agricultural development region of Vojvodina.

Diet and reproductive success of Great Horned Owl (<i>Bubo virginianus</i>) at its northern breeding limit

We studied the diet and reproductive success of Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus) at its northern range limit during an apparent high in the Snowshoe Hare (Lepus americanus) population. We performed diet analyses using images from fixed motion sensor cameras and pellet and prey remains collected at active nests, and gathered data on breeding success through camera and visual observations. Pellet data at 14 nests produced 1277 prey records consisting of 65–95% Snowshoe Hare biomass. Great Horned Owls ate 18 different prey types, with overall biomass consisting of 93% mammal, 7% bird, and less than 1% insects, frogs, and fish. The mean prey mass of 714 g (± 34 SE) was 2–25 times the mean prey mass of studies of this species at more southerly latitudes. Camera observations showed that Great Horned Owls delivered an average of 459 g/chick/d (± 75) throughout nesting. This was significantly (P = 0.005) higher than observations from Alberta, at 328–411 g/chick/d. Pellet/prey remains data showed that Great Horned Owls delivering a higher proportion of hares to their nestlings successfully raised more chicks (χ21 = 6.3, P = 0.012), highlighting the importance of this prey in the population dynamics of Great Horned Owl. In addition, we observed Snowshoe Hare removing pellets beneath nest sites, revealing an apparently undocumented bias to the use of pellet analysis.

A test of wildlife warning reflectors as a way to reduce risk of wildlife-train collisions

Looking for an effective method to reduce risk of animal-train collisions, we tested the system of wildlife warning reflectors, a method usually used on roads. The research was conducted in central Poland, along a 2.1 km stretch of the E65 railway line near Warsaw, during eight months, in the years 2010–2011. For six months of a test period, the reflectors were uncovered (active) and, for the next two months of the control period, they were covered (non-active). Digital cameras were used to register animal reactions to trains 24-hours per day. We compared the probability of escape (escape = 1; no reaction = 0) from an oncoming train during test and control periods of the research, in different parts of a day (i.e. day vs. night) and compared escape time of roe deer between day and night and with reflectors covered and uncovered. Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and brown hare (Lepus europaeus) were observed most often (702 observations in total). The status of reflectors (covered/uncovered) did not influence the probability of animals’ escape from an oncoming train. The only factors that affected the probability of escape were animal species and time of a day. Of the three species, roe deer was most likely to escape from an oncoming train (89% of probability at day and 52% during night, pooled data for covered and uncovered reflectors). Timing of roe deer escape from an oncoming train did not differ between day (6.4 seconds) and night, with either reflectors covered (7.5 seconds) or uncovered (4.6 seconds). The results indicated that wildlife warning reflectors were not effective to modify animal behaviour and to reduce risk of animal-train collisions.

Effects of Population Declines on Habitat Segregation and Activity Patterns of Rabbits and Hares in Doñana National Park, Spain

Competition, predation, and diseases are key factors shaping animal communities. In recent decades, lagomorphs in Europe have been impacted by virus-borne diseases that have caused substantial declines in their populations and, subsequently, in many of their predators. We examined activity and habitat-use patterns of sympatric European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus L.) and Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis R.) in Doñana National Park, Spain, (DNP) during two periods of disease outbreak. In the first period (1984–1985), fecal pellet counts and roadside counts indicated that lagomorph species were segregated, with rabbits occurring in scrublands and hares in marshlands. Both species also occupied rush and fern belt ecotones. Roadside counts at sunrise, midday, sunset, and midnight revealed that rabbits and hares had the same activity patterns (crepuscular and nocturnal) in the zone of sympatry. During the second period (2005–2016), roadside counts showed that rabbits and hares were mainly nocturnal in scrublands and border marshlands. Hares occupied scrublands; a habitat previously occupied only by rabbits. These results are interpreted in light of the competition theory and predation pressure. The disease-caused decline of rabbits has likely favored hares that moved into scrublands, a vegetation type previously occupied exclusively by rabbits. The decline of rabbits in DNP has also caused the almost disappearance of this area of the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus), a rabbit specialist, thus enabling generalist predators to increase. Generalist predators have subsequently increased predation pressure on both rabbits and hares, causing them to switch to nocturnal activity.

The Population Size and Distribution of Diurnal Large Wild Mammals in the Southern Great Rift Valley, Ethiopia

The study was carried out to assess the population size and distribution of diurnal large wild mammals in the southern Great Rift Valley, Ethiopia. The study area was stratified into four habitat types: riverine forest, ground-water forest, grassland, and bushland. Samples of animals were surveyed through the transect method. The total number of individuals belonging to the 15 species observed was 1681 and 1245 during the wet and dry seasons, respectively. Burchell's zebra (Equus burchellii), Anubis baboon (Papio anubis), Vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus), and Grant's gazelle (Nanger granti) were the most abundant species, while Abyssinian hare (Lepus habessinicus) and Bush duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) were the least abundant species. The highest number of species has been supported by the bushland habitat, followed by open grassland, riverine forest, and ground-water forest in both seasons. Despite the park being home to various types of mammalian species, there is a need for conservation actions by the park management and other concerned bodies for the survival of those species in the area.

Spatial and trophic niche of an assemblage of native and non-native herbivores of arid Argentina

Abstract The coexistence of ecologically similar species is facilitated by differential use of resources along habitat, diet, and/or temporal niche axes. We used feces of non-native rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), hare (Lepus europaeus), goat (Capra hircus), and the native plains viscacha (Lagostomus maximus) to compare the utilization of spatial and trophic resources in an arid ecosystem of Argentina. We expected herbivores to present differential responses in the use of at least one of the niche axes (habitat and/or trophic) associated with seasonal changes in resource availability and according to the origin of the species (native, non-native). We evaluated habitat use and selection through Chi-squared goodness-of-fit tests and Bonferroni confidence intervals, and factors shaping habitat selection (particular components of the habitat type) using generalized linear mixed-effects models. We analyzed the seasonal compositions of diets, breadth of trophic niches, and dietary overlaps. The assemblage of herbivores did not segregate markedly in spatial resource use, showing that hares and goats were more generalist than rabbits and plains viscacha in the utilization of different habitat types. Native and non-native herbivores overlapped markedly in the trophic niche dimension but segregated to some degree in the use of space during wet and dry seasons. The four herbivores shared a similar diet composition. Among dietary items, grasses contributed high percentages during the wet season. Under conditions of resource limitation (dry season), the native plains viscacha differed in feeding strategy from the non-native herbivores. These results deepen our understanding of likely underlying mechanisms that allow coexistence of native and non-native herbivores in an arid ecosystem.

Causes of admission and outcomes of brown hare (Lepus europaeus) leverets at wildlife rescue centres in the Czech Republic

BackgroundWildlife rescue centres care for orphaned and injured young as an integral part of their work. However, inappropriate interventions in nature can have a negative effect on the survival of young hares, especially when the care of these young is not very successful. The aim of this study was to assess the number of brown hare leverets admitted to rescue centres in the Czech Republic in the period from 2010 to 2019, the causes of their admission to rescue centres and their outcomes.ResultsWe evaluated the number of brown hare leverets admitted to rescue centres in the Czech Republic in the period from 2010 to 2019 and the outcomes associated with their leaving these rescue centres. We found that the number of brown hare leverets admitted increased during the monitored period (rSp = 0.6364, p < 0.05). The most frequent reasons for admission were the admission of orphaned young (49.15%), leverets brought needlessly (19.60%) and leverets that had been bitten by other animals (18.63%). More (p < 0.05) young admitted to rescue centres died (40.76%) than were reared successfully and released back into the wild (32.40%). Leverets that had been caught needlessly or orphaned and late-born leverets survived and could be released back into the wild (38.56, 34.51 and 52%, respectively), while fatalities were recorded in most leverets bitten by another animal (65.05%) or hit in a collision with a vehicle (97.06%). Most young hares (76.92%) that were exhausted or starved at the time of admission could not be saved.ConclusionsSince only a small proportion of hares in a litter survive until adulthood in the wild, young animals being found and taken needlessly to rescue centres may harm the hare population. Our results show that only around one in three healthy young hares admitted to rescue centres are reared successfully. It is, in our opinion, of fundamental importance to the protection of brown hare leverets to inform the public of this issue and prevent needless interventions into natural rearing in the wild.

Effects of Long-Term Lead Exposure on Antioxidant Enzyme Defense System in Organs of Brown Hare (Lepus europaeus Pallas) as a Bioindicator of Environmental Pollution in Croatia.

In Croatia, Podravina is a well-known lead-polluted region due to the intensive exploitation of natural gas, a highly developed agricultural industry, and a traffic hub with several heavily traveled roads. It represents a natural environment with a great variety of wildlife, especially hares (Lepus europaeus Pallas), which may serve as an indicator for environmental quality assessment. This study was conducted to estimate the bioaccumulation of lead in hare liver, kidney, muscle, and brain during long-term exposure and its impact on the oxidative status of the organism and to investigate a possible lead exchange ionic mechanism in the brain. In the organs of two hare groups (experimental from polluted area and control from the island of Krk), Ca, Fe, Mg, Na, lead concentrations, and antioxidant enzyme defense system were analyzed. The accumulation of lead was highest in the brain (3.7-fold higher compared to the control group) and lowest in the liver (1.6-fold higher compared to the control group). Kendall-Tau and multiple regression analysis showed that the increased lead content caused a stronger exchange of Ca and Na ions in the brain. We proposed that lead either mobilizes intracellular cation stores or causes competitive displacement of Ca from the binding site in intoxicated cells. A linear predictive model for cell intoxication by lead was proposed, where GPx and SOD were predominantly influenced by long-term lead exposure. The presented results showed that long-term lead exposure in hares negatively affected their oxidative status and caused the strongest toxicity in the brain and muscles, making their survival and/or population vulnerable.

Species identification and phylogenetic analysis of Leishmania isolated from patients, vectors and hares in the Xinjiang Autonomous Region, The People's Republic of China.

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) has been declared as one of the six major tropical diseases by the World Health Organization. This disease has been successfully controlled in China, except for some areas in the western region, such as the Xinjiang Autonomous Region, where both anthroponotic VL (AVL) and desert type zoonotic VL (DT-ZVL) remain endemic with sporadic epidemics. Here, an eleven-year survey (2004-2014) of Leishmania species, encompassing both VL types isolated from patients, sand-fly vectors and Tarim hares (Lepus yarkandensis) from the Xinjiang Autonomous Region was conducted, with a special emphasis on the hares as a potential reservoir animal for DT-ZVL. Key diagnostic genes, ITS1, hsp70 and nagt (encoding N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate transferase) were used for phylogenetic analyses, placing all Xinjiang isolates into one clade of the L. donovani complex. Unexpectedly, AVL isolates were found to be closely related to L. infantum, while DT-ZVL isolates were closer to L. donovani. Unrooted parsimony networks of haplotypes for these isolates also revealed their relationship. The above analyses of the DT-ZVL isolates suggested their geographic isolation and independent evolution. The sequence identity of isolates from patients, vectors and the Tarim hares in a single DT-ZVL site provides strong evidence in support of this species as an animal reservoir.

Implications for conservation and game management of the roadkill levels of the endemic Iberian hare (Lepus granatensis)

The Iberian hare (Lepus granatensis) is an important small game species endemic to the Iberian Peninsula for which the incidence of roadkill is unknown. We surveyed Iberian hare–vehicle accidents on road networks in southern Spain, focusing on roads that mainly run through favorable habitats for this species: Mediterranean landscapes with plots of arable crops, olive groves, and vineyards. We recorded roadkills over a 5-month period, estimated hare accident densities on roads, and compared these numbers to hare hunting yields in adjoining hunting estates. We also analyzed the spatial patterns of and potential factors influencing hare roadkills. We detected the existence of black spots for hare roadkills in areas with high landscape heterogeneity that also included embankments and nearby crossroads and had high traffic intensity. Hare roadkill levels ranged from 5 to 25% of the annual harvest of hares killed on neighboring hunting estates. We suggest that road collisions should be considered in Iberian hare conservation in addition to hunting, since they may represent an additive source of mortality. Game managers should address the issue of hare roadkill in harvest planning to compensate for hare accidents, adjusting hunting quotas to account for this unnatural source of mortality. Our results suggest future directions for applied research in road ecology, including further work on demographic compensation and roadkill mitigation.

Revealing the coexistence of differentiation and communication in an endemic hare, Lepus yarkandensis (Mammalia, Leporidae) using specific-length amplified fragment sequencing

BackgroundThe Yarkand hare (Lepus yarkandensis Günther, 1875) is endemic to oasis and desert areas around the Tarim Basin in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of northwest China; however, genome-wide information for this species remains limited. Moreover, the genetic variation, genetic structure, and phylogenetic relationships of Yarkand hare from the plateau mountain regions have not been reported. Thus, we used specific-length amplified fragment sequencing (SLAF-seq) technology to evaluate the genetic diversity of 76 Yarkand hares from seven geographic populations in the northern and southwestern parts of the Tarim Basin to investigate single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) marker-based population differentiation and evolutionary processes. Selective sweep analysis was conducted to identify genetic differences between populations.ResultsUsing SLAF-seq, a total of 1,835,504 SNPs were initially obtained, of which 308,942 high-confidence SNPs were selected for further analysis. Yarkand hares exhibited a relatively high degree of genetic diversity at the SNP level. Based on pairwise FST estimates, the north and southwest groups showed a moderate level of genetic differentiation. Phylogenetic tree and population structure analyses demonstrated evident systematic phylogeographical structure patterns consistent with the geographical distribution of the hares. Hierarchical analysis of molecular variation further indicated that genetic variation was mainly observed within populations. Low to moderate genetic differentiation also occurred among populations despite a common genomic background, likely due to geographical barriers, genetic drift, and differential selection pressure of distinct environments. Nevertheless, the observed lineage-mixing pattern, as indicated by the evolutionary tree, principal component analysis, population structure, and TreeMix analyses, suggests a certain degree of gene flow between the north and southwest groups. This may be related to the migration of hares to high-altitude water sources southwest of the basin during glacial climatic oscillations, as well as river re-diffusion and oasis restoration in the basin following the glacial period. We also identified candidate genes, and their associated gene ontology terms and pathways, related to the adaptation of Yarkand hares to different environmental habitats.ConclusionsThe identified genome-wide SNPs, genetic diversity, and population structure of Yarkand hares expand our understanding of the genetic background of this endemic species and provide valuable insights into its environmental adaptation, allowing for further exploration of the underlying mechanisms.

First detected case of rabbit Haemorrhagic disease virus 2 (RHDV2) in the Irish hare (Lepus timidus hibernicus)

BackgroundRabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) is a Lagovirus, a subgroup of the family Caliciviridae. RHDV2 is a variant first described in France in 2010, and has since spread globally. It has been reported in several Lagomorph species (rabbits, hares, and their relatives) as well as other mammals including voles and shrews. The disease has raised international concerns for its potential impact on population abundance trajectories, particularly as 25% of Lagomorphs are currently Red-Listed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The Irish hare (Lepus timidus hibernicus) is a subspecies of the mountain hare, L. timidus, and is endemic to Ireland, making it an Evolutionarily Significant Unit of intrinsic value.Case presentationThe first case of RHDV2 was detected in a wild Irish hare in July 2019. The individual exhibited atypical neurological behaviour (running in circles) prior to death. On necropsy, pink tinged foam was seen in the trachea and congestion was noted in the lungs, but there was no evidence of haemorrhages in any other organ. Both the liver and spleen were tested by reverse transcription real time qPCR confirming high levels of RHDV2 RNA. Histopathology confirmed multifocal necrotising hepatitis.ConclusionThe Irish hare is susceptible to RHDV2 infection. Further investigation is warranted to explore the clinical, epidemiological, and population biology implications.

Yearly Variations in GCM Concentrations in Female Mountain Hares (Lepus timidus) and the Effect of Pregnancy.

Simple SummaryThe measurement of stress hormones has become a widely used and effective tool for evaluating adrenocortical activity in animals. However, to correctly interpret stress measurements, the potential sampling bias resulting from an oversampling of individuals in different states of pregnancy has rarely been investigated. We found significant yearly variations in states of pregnancy, which is related to the conditions of the females due to the snow cover duration before and at the start of the reproductive period. These results are important for improving the interpretation of stress hormone concentrations in free-ranging populations during the breeding and reproductive periods.The measurement of glucocorticoid metabolites (GCMs) in faeces has become a widely used and effective tool for evaluating the amount of stress experienced by animals. However, the potential sampling bias resulting from an oversampling of individuals in different states of pregnancy has rarely been investigated. In this study, we validate a noninvasive method for measuring gestagen metabolites in female mountain hares (Lepus timidus) under controlled conditions. We also measured the concentration of gestagen metabolites of females in a free-ranging population during the early breeding and post-breeding periods from 2014 to 2019. We found significant yearly variations in gestagen metabolites, which were related to the condition of the females due to the snow cover duration before and at the start of the reproduction period. GCMs were significantly influenced by the gestagen metabolite levels. These results are important for improving the interpretation of GCM concentrations in free-ranging populations during the breeding and reproductive periods.

Hybridization with mountain hares increases the functional allelic repertoire in brown hares

Brown hares (Lepus europaeus Pallas) are able to hybridize with mountain hares (L. timidus Linnaeus) and produce fertile offspring, which results in cross-species gene flow. However, not much is known about the functional significance of this genetic introgression. Using targeted sequencing of candidate loci combined with mtDNA genotyping, we found the ancestral genetic diversity in the Finnish brown hare to be small, likely due to founder effect and range expansion, while gene flow from mountain hares constitutes an important source of functional genetic variability. Some of this variability, such as the alleles of the mountain hare thermogenin (uncoupling protein 1, UCP1), might have adaptive advantage for brown hares, whereas immunity-related MHC alleles are reciprocally exchanged and maintained via balancing selection. Our study offers a rare example where an expanding species can increase its allelic variability through hybridization with a congeneric native species, offering a route to shortcut evolutionary adaptation to the local environmental conditions.

Winter Food Availability for Wild Herbivores Depending on the Type of Forest Regeneration

This study compares the amount of available biomass for wild herbivores (red deer (Cervus elaphus L.), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.), and hare (Lepus europaeus Pallas)) depending on three different types of forest silvicultural systems—presented using the example of beech and spruce stands in wintertime. During the winter period, spruce provided ten times more biomass for herbivores than beech. However, beech provided more metabolizable energy, 7.38 MJ/kg on average, whereas spruce only provided 6.57 MJ/kg. From the point of view of “risk of damage by herbivores”, artificial regeneration suffered the worst damage after using the Clear Cutting method of forest regeneration, as there was the least amount of biomass available, and thus, herbivores caused the greatest damage. On average, 12% of shoots were damaged in clearings. Most at risk was young forest vegetation up to 1 m tall. In summer, the area was overgrown with available plants, but in winter, the herbivores focused mainly on eating woody shoots. Damage to the natural regeneration when using the Shelterwood Cutting and Strip Cutting regeneration methods ranged up to 3%. At the same time, a high amount of available biomass was measured there, most likely due to its frequent natural regeneration. Thus, both types of trees regenerated in this way were not as susceptible to damage by herbivores as when regenerated using the Clear Cutting method.

On the Hunting of, and Threats Facing, the Cape Hare (Lepus capensis Linnaeus, 1758) in the Gaza Strip, Palestine

The Cape Hare (Lepus capensis Linnaeus, 1758) is the only lagomorph in Palestine (27,000 km2). Although it was common in the Gaza Strip 4-5 decades ago, its present occurrence is restricted by several overlapping factors. The current study aims to spotlight the hunting of, and the threats facing, Cape Hares in the Gaza Strip (365 km2). This descriptive study, which lasted 5 years (2016 – 2020), was based on frequent field visits and observations in addition to meetings and discussions with wildlife hunters and farmers. We found that the eastern parts of the Gaza Strip were the main hunting places for Cape Hares. The methods involved in hare hunting included shooting, foothold traps, live traps known locally as "maltash", net walls, pit traps and coursing which involves the use of greyhounds. Wildlife hunters described the hunting of Cape Hares as a complicated task due to its low occurrence, extreme caution, difficulty of tracking it, presence near the Israeli security fence, which poses a danger to hunters, in addition to the great experience and high concentration that such hunting requires. Cape Hares face several threats, some of which are Israeli, and some specific to Gazans and the environment of the Gaza Strip. The Israeli threats include the Israeli security fence which prevents the natural flow of wildlife between the Gaza Strip and the rest of the Palestinian territories, Israeli wars and invasions, and the Israeli spraying of herbicides at the eastern border areas of the Gaza Strip for claimed security reasons which eradicates the plant cover supporting hares and other fauna with shelter and food. The Gazan threats include urban encroachment at the expense of natural habitats, excessive use of chemical pesticides, overhunting of Cape Hares, noticeable increase of opportunistic carnivores feeding on Cape Hares, and weakness of environmental awareness campaigns and laws that protect wildlife. Finally, the study recommends the use of all possible means to sustainably protect and conserve wildlife including Cape Hares in the Gaza Strip.

Assessment of status and threats of wild mammals in some selected locations of Dinajpur district, Bangladesh

The status of mammals in Dinajpur district was studied from October 2016 to November 2017. For inventory and assessment of wild mammal’s belt-transect sampling, box trap survey, mist netting, night survey and questionnaire survey methods were used. A total of 22 species of mammals belonging to 11 families and 5 orders were recorded. Of the recorded species 8 were rodents, 1 hare, 1 shrew, 7 bats and 5 carnivores. Muridae appeared as the largest family containing 8 species. A total of 9 species (41%) were recorded as “very common”, 6 species (27%) “common”, 4 species (18%) “uncommon”, and 3 species (14%) “rare”. Among all the mammalian species, 41% (9 species) were nocturnal, 14% (3 species) crepuscular, 37% (8 species) metaturnal and 9% (2 species) diurnal. On the other hand, 55% (12 species) of mammals were terrestrial, 9% (2 species) arboreal, 32% (7 species) aerial and 4% (1 species) aquatic mammals. Of all the recorded species, 32% (7 species) were herbivores followed by 27% (6 species) carnivores, 5% (1 species) opportunists while frugivores and insectivores were 18% (4 species) each. About 19% (4 species) of the known species are nationally threatened comprising of Endangered (5%), Vulnerable (5%) and Near Threatened (9%) and Least Concern (81%). Based on the habitats, 14 species (64%) were recorded from forests, 7 (31%) from homestead vegetation’s and 1 (5%) species from wetlands. A good number of individuals (n=12) of the nationally threatened Bengal Fox (Vulpes bengalensis) were found in the study area and two mammal species, Indian Hare (Lepus nigricollis) and Large Indian Civet (Viverra zibetha) have been locally facing the threat of extirpation. The mammalian diversity in the natural forests (64%) was higher than that of the other habitats. Different anthropogenic threats, especially hunting by ethnic Santal people (frequency of observation 24 times, impact point 4), exist in the study area. The major proposed actions for the study area are habitat restoration, increase public awareness and conflict management.&#x0D; Jahangirnagar University J. Biol. Sci. 9(1 &amp; 2): 21-34, 2020 (June &amp; December)