Hardness Of Shell Research Articles

Improving frictional and insulation performance with silica-coated titanium dioxide additives in grease

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to synthesize composite nanoparticles (TiO2@SiO2) via the chemical deposition method and investigate their efficacy as additives in polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) lubricating grease. The focus was on examining the frictional and conductive properties of the TiO2@SiO2 grease using a friction tester.Design/methodology/approachComposite nanoparticles (TiO2@SiO2) were synthesized using the chemical deposition method and incorporated into PTFE grease. Frictional and conductive properties were evaluated using a friction tester. Surface morphology and chemical composition of wear tracks were analyzed using scanning electron microscope and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, respectively.FindingsIncorporating TiO2@SiO2 at a mass fraction of 1 Wt.% led to a significant reduction in friction coefficient and wear width. The wear depth exhibited a remarkable decrease of 260%, while the contact resistance reached its peak value. This improvement in tribological properties could be attributed to the presence of TiO2@SiO2, where TiO2 served as the core and SiO2 as the shell during the friction process. The high hardness of the SiO2 shell contributed to enhanced load-bearing capacity. In addition, the exceptional insulation properties of SiO2 demonstrated excellent electron-capturing capabilities, resulting in improved friction and insulation performance of the TiO2@SiO2 lubricating grease.Originality/valueThis study demonstrates the potential of TiO2@SiO2 composite nanoparticles as additives in lubricating greases, offering improved friction and insulation performance. The findings provide insights into the design of advanced lubricating materials with enhanced tribological properties and insulation capacity, contributing to the development of more efficient and durable lubrication systems.

Development and Characterization of Hybrid Particulate-fiber Reinforced Epoxy Composites

Although considered wastes, animal fibers and gastropod shell particles are biodegradable, have low density, high stiffness, considerably high impact absorption capacity and relatively low cost. Therefore, they are finding increasing use as reinforcement materials in polymer composites. This research work studied the tensile, hardness, and wear resistance properties of hybrid snail shell (SSP) and chicken feather barb fibers (CFB) reinforced epoxy composites. The stir cast molding technique was utilized to synthesize the composite samples with 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18 wt.% of the hybrid SSPs/CFB. Compared with the control samples, SSP/CFB hybrid reinforcements enhanced the mechanical properties of the composites. Composites with intermediate weight fraction of 9 wt.% SSP/CFB exhibited overall optimum properties when benchmarked against the control sample with approximately 37, 37, 133, 19, and 59% improvement in wear, hardness, impact, and ultimate tensile strength properties respectively. These enhancements suggested a synergistic effect of the two reinforcement phases. The results presented in this study demonstrated the potential of utilizing bio-derived waste materials for synthesizing eco-friendly composites.

A Polytetrafluoroethylene@Polyacrylonitrile core-shell composite with high tribological performance

As a lubricating additive, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) exhibited poor wear resistance, high wear rate and weak adhesion strength, which restricted its application in the area of lubrication and wear protection. In this paper, we prepared a PTFE-based core-shell composite (PTFE@PAN) composed of PTFE core and polyacrylonitrile (PAN) shell through an emulsion polymerization method. The PTFE core with diameter of about 80–100 nm was wrapped by the PAN shell with the thickness of about 50–60 nm. The PTFE@PAN core-shell composite present better dispersion stability in lubricating oil (poly-α-olefin 6, PAO6) than PTFE. Additionally, the PTFE@PAN composite dispersed in PAO6 exhibited significantly reduction in friction coefficient and wear scar width up to 50 % and 25 % compared to PTFE, respectively. Meanwhile, the wear volume of PTFE@PAN composite under a load of 200 N was 4.855 × 104 μm3, was merely one twenty-seventh of that of PTFE (130.6 × 104 μm3). In comparison to conventional oil lubricants, this enhanced tribological properties of PTFE@PAN composite were conducive to a homogeneous transfer film composed of the dual-phase hard polymer (PAN) and soft PTFE polymer (PTFE). Compared with PTFE, the lower surface hardness and better flexibility of PAN shell led to deformation and gap filling with the entanglement and motion of the molecular chains, which could reduce the scratches and decline the abrasive wear of the rubbing surface significantly in the course of the friction process on a rough surface under the high load. That results also suggested that the PTFE@PAN core-shell composite will be a potential lubricating and wear-resistant additive.

Effect of adding of sabah snake grass (clinacanthus nutans) on the antioxidant and sensory properties of chocolate

This research was carried out to identify the effect of drying methods on the antioxidant activity of Sabah snake grass leaves as well as the addition of Sabah snake grass powder on the antioxidant and sensory properties of chocolate. Antioxidant properties of chocolate samples were determined through total phenolic content and DPPH radical scavenging activity tests. The best formulation of chocolate filled with Sabah snake grass was determined based on sensory and antioxidant test. Nutrient content of chocolate was determined through AOAC methods whereas water activity and hardness of chocolate shell were determined using water activity meter and Texture Analyzer. Changes of chocolate during storage was reviewed through the aspect of moisture content, water activity, hardness, melting point, microorganism count and sensory score. Results showed that chocolate F2, chocolate filled with 100g of Sabah snake grass powder was the best formulation with satisfaction by panels and higher antioxidant activity. This sample contain 7.25% moisture, 2.19% ash, 30.61% fat, 5.41% protein, 1.94% crude fibre and 52.61% carbohydrate. The storage sample showed significantly difference (p<0.05) in moisture content, water activity, hardness and melting property after kept for eight weeks but still safe to be consumed.

Negative phototaxis of jumping cocooned parasitoid wasp larvae against short wavelengths and physicochemical properties of the cocoon shell

The parasitoid wasp Bathyplectes anurus (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Campopleginae) is a successful biocontrol agent against the alfalfa weevil, Hypera postica. This weevil is a serious pest of beneficial fabaceous plants such as alfalfa and Chinese milk vetch. One of the possible reasons for the success of this wasp in hot climates may be the ability of its cocooned larvae to repeatedly jump and roll until they relocate themselves away from detrimental sunlight and heat. It is not yet known which wavelengths of light trigger this avoidance behavior or the microstructure of the cocoon shell that might allow light transmission. Here, the response of the cocooned larvae to different wavelengths, and the microstructure, hardness, and elemental components of the cocoon shell were studied. A population of cocooned larvae were introduced on the boundary line between illuminated and shaded areas with blue, green, red, or near-infrared light-emitting diodes. The cocoons moved away from the blue and green light. The distance from the boundary to the cocoons in the shaded area was longer under these long wavelengths, followed by the red light and shortest under the near-infrared light and nil under darkness. No difference was found in mortality between different wavelengths after three days of illumination. Scanning electron microscope observations of the surface of the cocoon shell revealed that the belt-like central ridge was porous, which likely allows ventilation and light transmission. The surface of the cocoon shell showed a uniform distribution of sulfur, potentially aiding in the capture of green wavelengths. The ridge had twice the thickness of the main body and was 1.9 times harder than the main body. These results may be applied to better understand the individual responses of this biological control agent to modifications to their environment, including light pollution.

Do African egg‐eating snakes (Dasypeltis) exhibit preference for eggs they eat?

AbstractAfrican egg‐eating snakes (genus Dasypeltis) are medium‐sized obligate egg‐eating species capable of swallowing large eggs compared to facultative egg‐eating snakes of the same size. Dasypeltis have numerous adaptations for swallowing then crushing eggs to extract the content. Being dependent on an egg diet, it could be predicted that Dasypeltis have the ability to assess the quality of an egg then decide whether to reject or swallow it. For example, a small egg provides less food and takes less time to swallow than a large egg but swallowing a large egg could leave the snake more vulnerable to predation. Despite the possibility of Dasypeltis exhibiting egg preference, little research has addressed this. This study examined egg preference by five species of Dasypeltis in two laboratory experiments. In the first, five species of snakes were given a choice of the widest size range of eggs available from one order of birds. These included nine species of gallinaceous birds ranging from small, soft‐shelled king quail eggs to large, hard‐shelled turkey eggs. In the second experiment, snakes were given a choice of four eggs representing three genera of birds that occur in Africa represented by two galliform and two columbiform species. These eggs varied in volume, color, and hardness of shell. The results show Dasypeltis preferred certain eggs. Large snakes eat eggs of all sizes with preference for the largest, hardest eggs, while the smallest snakes ate only the smallest eggs. Snakes preferred columbiform eggs (dove and pigeon) over galliform eggs (king quail and Japanese quail). This study demonstrated that Dasypeltis in captivity do exhibit preferences for types and sizes of eggs.

Methods of In Ovo and Ex Ovo Ostrich Embryo Culture with Observations on the Development and Maturation of the Chorioallantoic Membrane.

Culture of shell-free and windowed eggs for drug testing and other experiments has been perfected for smaller eggs such as those of chickens, where the developing blood vessels of the chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) become accessible for manipulative studies. However, due to the thickness and hardness of the ostrich egg shell, such techniques are not applicable. Using a tork craft mini rotary and a drill bit, we established windowed egg, in-shell-membrane windowed egg, and in-shell-membrane shell-free methods in the ostrich egg, depending on whether the shell membranes were retained or not. Concomitant study of the developing CAM revealed that at embryonic day 16 (E16), the three layers of the CAM were clearly delineated and at E25, the chorionic capillaries had fused with the epithelium while the CAM at E37 had reached maturity and the chorion and the allantois were both 3-4 times thicker and villous cavity (VC) and capillary-covering cells were well delineated. Both intussusceptive and sprouting angiogenesis were found to be the predominant modes of vascular growth in the ostrich CAM. Development and maturation of the ostrich CAM are similar to those of the well-studied chicken egg, albeit its incubation time being twice in duration.

Manual Shelling of Preconditioned Cashew Nut Using Handtool and Its Impact on Occupational Health of Workers

India is the second-leading country in production of cashew nut. Cashew nut are roasted or steamed before shelling. The study was conducted in cashew nut processing industries situated in Selsella and Mankachar blocks of Meghalaya and Assam. The purpose of this study was to compare the cutting strength of cashew nut shells influenced by roasting and steaming. The impact of manual shelling of cashew nut on occupational health of workers was also assessed by using ergonomic tools. The moisture content, colour, and hardness of cashew nut shell were measured. The processing of cashew nut influenced the cutting strength of cashew nut significantly. Steamed cashew nut shell was stronger than the roasted cashew nut shell. Hence, manually shelling of steamed cashew nut shell required more force compared to with that of roasted cashew nut shell. Four cashew nut processing industries, two each from Selsella and Mankachar block of Meghalaya and Assam, respectively were selected purposively. A group of 10 female workers from each industry were selected randomly as sample for this study. Ergonomic parameters: working Heart Rate, energy expenditure, rated perceived exertion, hand grip measurements, RULA and REBA analysis were used to assess occupational health of workers. The results of the study showed that the workers of cashew nut industries were exposed to high occupational health and safety risk due to poor working environment, awkward working posture, repetitive and tedious job.

Multiscale Mechanics of Eggshell and Shell Membrane

Eggshell is a target material for biomimicry: a biogenic material that is synthesized quickly under near-ambient conditions, and which has intriguing mechanical properties. Biomineralization in such natural systems utilizes organic molecules, both providing a surface to facilitate heterogeneous mineral nucleation and captured within the deposited mineral. Here, we examined the relationship between calcitic mineralized shell and the organic eggshell membrane. Elastic modulus and hardness of shell, as measured by nanoindentation in cross-section, exhibited approximately constant property values across three egg-laying species. Macro-scale fracture experiments demonstrated the structural importance of the fibrous eggshell membrane, with weak influence on egg fracture force but substantial effect on work of fracture. This effect was different for complete removal of the membrane versus chemical drying. The membrane thus represents a distinct target for improving egg mechanical properties independent of mineral quality.

Development and characterization of green automotive brake pads from waste shells of giant African snail (Achatina achatina L.)

In this study, waste shells of African giant snail (Achatina achatina L.) were explored as candidates for asbestos-free non-carcinogenic brake pads. The results obtained showed that the density, Brinell hardness, and compressive strength of the snail shell (SS) brake pads were superior to the commercial sample used for comparison. These properties were found to decrease with increase in particle size, following a negative index power law model after the order of the Hall-Petch equation. However, the liquid absorption characteristics increased with increase in particle size and its model followed a positive index power law due to the pores in the matrix. On the other hand, the thermal conductivity showed no significant change with variation in particle size. The SS-based brake pad exhibited better frictional grip at the rubbing interfaces compared to the commercial brake pad sample. From the frictional results obtained, the commercial brake pad can be rated as Edge-Code-D whereas the frictional ratings for the SS-based brake pad with different particle sizes are Edge-Code-E (500μm and 250μm), Edge-Code-F (375μm), Edge-Code-G (125μm), and Edge-Code-H (90μm). The wear rates and wear areas of the developed SS-based brake pads were inferior to the commercial sample but can be improved by impregnating the matrix with more iron fillings to enhance the poor thermal conductivity and hence wear characteristics.

Preparation of transgenic Musca domestica by microinjection method

The transposon vector containing enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) was injected into early housefly (Musca domestica L.) eggs by microinjection method to realize stable gene expression in vivo for verification, and to study housefly gene function. A borosilicate glass micro injection needle suitable for microinjection of housefly eggs was made, the softening treatment conditions of housefly egg shells were explored, and a microinjection technology platform suitable for housefly was constructed with a high-precision microsyringe Nanoject Ⅲ as the main body. The recombinant plasmid PiggyBac-[3×P3]-EGFP containing the eye-specific 3×P3 promoter and EGFP and the stable genetic expression helper plasmid pHA3pig helper were microinjected into the treated housefly eggs. After emergence, the eye luminescence was observed, and the expression and transcription level of EGFP were detected. The results showed that the normal hatching rate of housefly eggs was 55% when rinsed in bleaching water for 35 s. The hardness of the egg shell treated for 35 s was suitable for injection and the injection needle was not easy to break. About 3% of the emerged housefly eyes had green fluorescence. Through further molecular detection, EGFP specific fragments with a size of 750 bp were amplified from DNA and RNA of housefly. Through the technical platform, the stable expression of reporter genes in housefly can be conveniently and effectively realized, and a bioreactor with housefly as the main body can be established, which provides certain reference value for subsequent research on housefly gene function.

Application of 3D printing technology for generating hollow-type suppository shells.

The application of 3D printing technology for generating tablets is attracting the attention of the pharmaceutical industry following approval of a 3D printed tablet (Spritam) by the US Food and Drug Administration. Here we focused on hollow-type suppository formulations typically prepared as suppository shells by pharmacists in hospitals. We used a fused deposition modeling-type 3D printer and polyvinyl alcohol filament as a water soluble material to print suppository shells with various thicknesses and different inner structures by changing the printing conditions for the 3D designed objects. The hardness of the suppository shell was dependent on the thickness and designed inner structure. An active pharmaceutical ingredient ionic liquid, a novel type of liquid drug formulation, was loaded in the suppository shells. The drug dissolution profile of the suppository formulations differed depending on the type of suppository shell. Composite suppository formulations (two drugs in separate compartments in the suppository shell) were prepared as a model tailored medicine for pediatric patients. Our findings suggest that 3D printing technology is applicable to the preparation of hollow-type suppository formulations and may be compatible with on-site hospital production.

Quantitative Variation in Calcium Carbonate Content in Shell of Different Chicken and Duck Varieties

A comparative analysis of calcium carbonate content in the egg shells of eight selected chicken species (Naadankozhi ,Karinkozhi, Giriraja, White leghorn, Black silky, Porukozhi, Naked neck hen and White silkie) and six species of ducks (Vigova, Chara, Chembelli, Plain duck, Nadan Tharavu and Patha Tharavu) were conducted. It was noted that even though higher level of calcium was present in all variety of egg shells, in chicken variety the highest calcium carbonate was noticed in Aseel (Porukozhi) eggshell and it was 92.90% of CaCO3 and the lowest was in Silky's chicken egg shell and it was 86.75% of CaCO3. In duck the highest calcium carbonate was noticed in Plain duck and it was 91% whereas the minimum noted was in Patha Tharavu and its egg shell containing 75% of CaCO3. Amount of calcium carbonate always associated with the hardness and strength of the egg shell. Hence Porukozhi's egg shell has highest hardness and White silkie species has lowest. In ducks plain duck showed high hardness and patha tharavu with minimum.

The Utilization Of Coconut Shell Waste As The Helmet Coating Materials For Motorcycle Riders

Coconut tree is a plant that can be easily found almost in every corner of Indonesian archipelago, therefore there are plentiful number of coconut produced here. Currently, the utilization of coconut shell waste is still limited to homemade furniture industries and crafts. It has not been made into technology product. The utilization of coconut shell waste as the helmet coating materials to be creative business product is an innovation in the form of helmet product making use of coconut shell waste. The second-hand helmet can be redesigned and recreated by making use the coconut shell waste as the outer coating. In other words, the ordinary or broken helmet can be transformed into a helmet which has unique, aesthetic and economical values. It is because coconut shell waste has a big potential to be made as a strong coating of motorcycle helmet that is more eco-friendly and is supporting the idea to utilize the waste into a valuable and sophisticated product. Accordingly, this research was conducted to make use the potential of coconut shell waste as unique, endurable, strong, and valuable helmet coating in order to answer the problem related to the large amount of coconut shell waste. This research found that coconut shell waste can be successfully turned into and used as helmet coating and in making a strong helmet from coconut shell waste, the thickness and weight of a coconut shell may have effect on the hardness level of the shell. The most effective hardness of coconut shell discovered in this research was 3.3 mm thick with 5 grams of weight.

Thermal damage of sulfur processed chamber under Claus operating reaction conditions—A case study

The sulfur from acid gas and sour gas is recovered to produce useful sulfur products. The claus reaction is industrially important process to recover sulfur from corrosive acid and sour gases. To achieve claus reaction, high temperature reactor is utilized under controlled conditions. The Claus combustion reaction heater made of 94% alumina refractory bricks were damaged under ideal equilibrium operating conditions. The first principle mathematical model was developed to measure the temperature profiles at hot face bricks and its interfaces to predict outer steel surface temperature. The maximum outer steel wall surface temperature was measured as 548.6 °C using thermograph experiments and compared against the predicted temperature. Large variations in temperature differences have confirmed that the refractory wall was damaged due to abnormal reactions. This thermal damage is discussed and presented with various evidences from visual inspection. The hot face wall bricks, matrix blocks and orifice throat were damaged and presented by macroscopic visual inspection. However, hardness of the steel shell is within specified limit. Therefore, the refractory repair inside the reactor and thermal insulation of external shell has been proposed to prevent steel shell from creep, graphitization, and high temperature oxidization and corrosion damages.

Experimental studies on the deformation and damage of steel cylindrical shells subjected to double-explosion loadings

Metal cylindrical shells with different wall thicknesses were subjected to double explosion detonated at varying stand-off distances. For comparison, single-explosion tests were conducted under the same conditions as those in the second explosion of the double- explosion tests. Five different types of failure modes were observed. Here, the energy distribution of the different failure modes is discussed. The effects of the double-explosion impact, the stand-off distance, and the wall thickness of the cylindrical shell on the deformation and damage of the metal cylindrical shells were investigated. The results indicated that the deformed cylindrical shells which were impacted by the first blast absorbed more energy under a given explosion load than the undamaged shells under the same explosion load according to the energy absorption theory. Vickers hardness tests presented a noticeable increase in the hardness of the cylindrical shell at the plastic hinge region and the central region with the number of witnessed blast loads increased. The stand-off distance and the wall thickness significantly influenced the failure mode and the energy absorption and distribution of the cylindrical shells under double-explosion loadings. The severity of the damage observed in the cylindrical shell increased with a decreasing stand-off distance. Moreover, when the cylindrical shell further deformed from local plastic deformation to crack, the local plastic deformation zone was decreased abruptly. The ability of the cylindrical shell to resist double explosions was enhanced by increasing the wall thickness because thicker shells have more energy absorption capacity and higher threshold for damage than thinner shells. Under the same explosive load, of which the energy has not reached the damage threshold of the cylindrical shell, the energy absorption of the cylindrical shell and the magnitude of the energy reduction both decreased when the wall thickness of the cylindrical shell increased in equal increments. Under the presented experimental conditions, the cylindrical shell first cracked along the radial direction.

Micromechanical assessment of PMMA microcapsules containing epoxy and mercaptan as self-healing agents

Mechanical properties of microcapsule shell have great influence on microcapsule suitability as a mechanical trigger in a self-healing composite. The elastic modulus and hardness of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) microcapsules containing epoxy prepolymer (EC 157) and pentaerythritol tetrakis (3-mercaptopropionate) (PETMP) as healing agents were investigated using nanoindentation technique. The influence of the PMMA average molecular weight (MW), the kind of core material, and the mechanical mixing rate on the mechanical properties of the microcapsule shell were studied using the Taguchi experimental design approach. The results indicated that the most important factors which affect the elastic modulus and the hardness of microcapsules shell are the Mw of PMMA and the kind of core material. The average elastic modulus of PMMA shell of epoxy and mercaptan-loaded microcapsules was found between 2.386 and 3.495 GPa. The hardness of PMMA shell of healing agent microcapsules was obtained in the range of 0.064–0.219 GPa. This constitutes essential knowledge in order to design capsules with tailored properties for self-healing materials.

Material properties of photomechanical infrared receptors in pyrophilous Melanophila beetles and Aradus bugs

Jewel beetles of the genus Melanophila and some pyrophilous species of the flat bugs genus Aradus show a pyrophilous behaviour and have developed so-called photomechanical infrared (IR) receptors. In a spherical photomechanical IR sensillum incoming IR radiation is converted into micromechanical action, finally stimulating the dendritic tip of a mechanosensitive sensory cell. The tip is located inside a tiny cuticular sphere with a diameter of about 12μm. The material properties of the different cuticular components of this sphere are of great importance for stimulus generation. We measured the modulus and hardness of the outer exocuticular shell of the sphere and the mesocuticle inside the core. Measurements were made by nanoindentation at sensilla which were partly cut open under dry as well as under rewetted (i.e. quasi-natural) conditions. We found that in the rewetted sensilla the outer exocuticular shell of the sphere in the Melanophila sensillum is about 50% harder and 20% stiffer than reference exocuticle, and that in both species especially the rewetted mesocuticle of the inner core of the IR sensilla is significantly softer (about 80% in Melanophila) and more compliant (about 90% also in Melanophila) than the reference mesocuticle. The findings can be interpreted as special adaptations of the cuticular microdomains of photomechanical infrared sensilla to enhance thermomechanical performance and, thereby, sensitivity.

밤의 화염박피 시스템 최적화에 관한 연구(I) - 국내산 밤의 화염박피 특성 예측모델 개발 -

The chestnut is a well-blown and important forest product in Korea. The annual production of chestnut is about 95,000 tons and its cultivating area is 80,000 ha. However, the peeling process of outer and inner skins of chestnut is very difficult due to hardness and adhesiveness of chestnut skin. The purpose of this study was to develop a prediction model for flame peeling characteristics of domestic chestnuts, and to evaluate an optimization model to determine the operation conditions of the chestnut flame peeling system. The results of this study were summarized as follows. It was found that the flame peeling characteristics of domestic chestnuts were by the flame temperature, and the flame time. The peeling ratio and the heating depth were increased as the flame temperature and the flame time were increased. The peeling ratio and the heating depth were increased linearly when those were less than 85 % and 2 mm respectively. As the hardness of chestnut shell was decreased, the peeling ratio was increased. A simulation model was developed to predict the peeling ratio and the heating depth based on the hardness of the chestnut shell, the flame temperature, and the flame time of the peeling system. The model was evaluated by comparing the measurement and the prediction of the peeling ratios and heating depths, and showed the good relationship.

INVESTIGATIONS ON MORPHOLOGICAL AND POMOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CHESTNUT GENOTYPES IN IKIZCE AND SENBOLLUK NATURAL AREAS OF ORDU VICINITY

This study has been carried out to contribute to the conservation of natural plant genetic resources and to determine the morphological and pomological characteristics of chestnut genotypes in Ikizce and Senbolluk natural areas of Ordu vicinity. For this aim, morphologic characteristics such as lower and upper leaf surface colour, leaf surface brilliance, leaf pubescence, leaf stalk length, leaf length and wideness were investigated. Nut and kernel weight, nut size, nut height, length and width, colour, brightness, thickness and hardness of nut shell, kernel colour, testa peeling and taste status were also investigated as nut characteristics. The lower and upper leaf surface colour of nut genotypes varied from intense green to clear green. The leaf surfaces varied from bright to mat, the leaf stalk lengths from 8.8 to 19.4 mm, leaf length from 145.0 to 237.6 mm, leaf wideness from 42.6 to 82.0 mm. Average nut weight varied between 1.83- 11.45 g, kernel weight between 1.34-9.71 g, nut width between 11.37-21.41 mm, nut length between 18.79-35.28 mm, nut height between 17.13-30.88 mm, shell colour between typical chestnut colour and intense colour, shell thickness between 0.28-0.58 mm, testa peeling between very easily and difficult, kernel colour between clear and dirty yellow.