Hard Winters Research Articles

Phytogeographical and biological spectrum of vascular flora as an indicator of ecological changes following clear-cutting in Eastern Serbian beech forest sites

Extreme weather events caused considerable harm to the forest ecosystems in Eastern Serbia over a few hard winters, resulting in widespread ice breaks and ice uprooting. Certain forest stands were severely impacted during the winter of 2014-2015, necessitating clear-cutting measures. This research was conducted in the Timok forest area, through examination of the floristic composition in areas subjected to clear-cutting, including natural beech forests and artificially established conifer stands within beech sites (Helleboro odori-Fagetum moesiacae). A phytogeographical and bioecological analysis was conducted five years after clear-cutting. Changes in ecosystems were assessed by analysing the spectra of area-types and plant life forms, with comparisons drawn to the “Vinatovača” old-growth forest, situated in the submontane beech forest of Eastern Serbia. Descriptive analysis of the phytogeographical and bioecological spectra of vascular flora, alongside multinomial correspondence analysis, revealed an increased presence of species from Eurasian, Mediterranean-sub-Mediterranean, and Pontic area-types, as well as hemicryptophytic, phanerophytic, and therophytic life forms in the clear-cut areas. In contrast, the old-growth forest was colonised by species of Central European and Holarctic area-types, along with geophytic life forms. These findings suggest a shift towards xerothermic microclimates in the clear-cut areas and the stronger influence of the continental climate of Eastern Serbia with its extremes on deforested areas, as well as on the processes of forest ecosystem degradation.

Multiomics analyses reveal the mechanisms of the responses of subalpine treeline trees to phenology and winter low-temperature stress.

Withstanding extreme cold stress is a prerequisite for alpine treeline trees to persist and survive. However, the underlying mechanism by which treeline trees sense phenological changes and survive hard winters has not been fully elucidated. Here, we investigated the physiology, transcriptome, and metabolome of the subalpine treeline species Larix chinensis to identify the molecular mechanism of phenological and cold resistance. Calcium and antioxidant enzyme activities (e.g., superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase) are essential for coping with winter cold stress in L. chinensis. Transcriptome analysis revealed that circadian rhythm and phytohormone signalling transduction played important roles in regulating L. chinensis phenological changes and cold stress responses. The variations in the transcriptome identified were accompanied by the specific accumulation of flavones, flavonols, and monosaccharides. The flavonoid biosynthesis and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathways played important roles in the adaptation of L. chinensis to the extreme winter environment, and flavone and flavonol biosynthesis was an important pathway involved in bud burst. In addition, temperature and photoperiod had synergistic influences on the formation and release of bud dormancy. Thus, our findings provided new insights into the mechanism of subalpine treeline formation.

The synzootic potential of common epidemics in chamois populations

Southern chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica) is a medium-sized and gregarious mountain ungulate with populations affected by periodic outbreaks of border disease virus (BD), infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC), and sarcoptic mange (SM). Even though the impact of each disease on chamois populations has been described in detail, there is a lack of information about the potential impact of concomitant epidemics and the synzootic potential (co-occurring enzootic or epizootic processes producing worse health outcomes in wildlife) on chamois populations. Furthermore, whether a specific order of apparition of epidemics is more or less harmful for the host population is practically unknown not only for chamois but also for most mammal populations. Using a population viability analysis (PVA), we studied the consequences of multiple disease outbreaks with synzootic potential on growth rates and probabilities of extinction of virtual populations exposed to hard winters, density dependence, and co-occurring BD, IKC, and SM outbreaks. Such infections are not under cross-immunity nor density-dependent processes and thus are supposed to affect population demography independently. Heavy snowfalls are also likely to occur in our simulated populations. Our simulations showed that a second outbreak, even caused by a low virulent pathogen, causes an increase in the probability of extinction of the host population with regard to the first outbreak. IKC-BD- and SM-BD-affected populations had a higher risk of becoming extinct in 50 years confirming the extra risk of multiple outbreaks on the viability of the affected populations.

The number of insects of midges complex and ratio of its various components in the forest-steppe zone of the Tyumen Region

The purpose of the research is comparing abundance levels of blood-sucking dipterans in the forest-steppe zone of the Tyumen Region for 8 years with different meteorological conditions.Materials and methods. The studies were carried out in 2006 and 2013–2019 in vicinity of the villages of Isetskoe and Barkhatovo, Isetsky District, Tyumen Region. Tabanid flies were collected and counted using funnel-shaped traps permanently on the same pasture on a regular basis once every 5–7 days during the entire emergence period. When counting the number of mosquitoes, midges and sandflies, we used a net with removable bags. Each count included 10 sweeps with a motion of the figure eight "around itself" in 10 replications.Results and discussion. The abundance of blood-sucking dipterans is largely determined by natural and climatic conditions and a hydrological regime of rivers, and is liable to significant fluctuations. The maximum abundance of gnats was recorded in 2014, the minimum in 2006. In comparing the average number for seasons with maximum and minimum abundance, a difference of 3.7 times was found. The abundance level and ratio of individual components of the midges complex depending on the season also underwent significant changes. In collected insects, midges dominated in 2006 and 2014, and mosquitoes in 2013 and in 2015–2019. Meteorological and hydrological conditions in winter and spring had the biggest impact on the abundance level of insects of the midges complex. Fluctuations in the abundance were 9 times for mosquitoes, 20 times for tabanid flies, and 39 times for midges and sandflies depending on the season. The main limiting factors for mass development of blood-sucking Diptera in the forest-steppe zone of the Tyumen Region are hard and dry winters which cause death of some insects at the preimaginal stages in development, as well as sharp changes in air temperature in the spring-summer period and small areas of breeding places.

Number and taxonomic structure of blood-sucking insects community in the forest-steppe zone of Tyumen Region

The abundance level of blood-sucking Diptera is, to a large extent, determined by natural and climatic conditions and hydrological regime of rivers, and is subject to significant fluctuations. In order to assess the impact of meteorological conditions of the season on the abundance of blood-sucking Diptera, the abundance ratio of horseflies, mosquitoes, blackflies and midges in the forest-steppe zone of Tyumen Region for 2006, 2013-2017 was compared. The study was performed in the surroundings of Isetskoye Village and Barkhatovo Village in Isetsky District of Tyumen Region. This area belongs to the province of Tobol forest-steppe. The study area is located on the left bank of Iset river. The forest-steppe zone is located in the south of the region. The region has very cold winters, the average temperature in January is -18-20ºС. The summer season lasts about 125 days, the average temperature in July is +19-20ºC. Spring and autumn seasons are short. The region is characterized by late frosts in spring until the end of the first decade of June and early autumn, and sometimes in late August. Analysis of data obtained showed that of the six seasons studied the largest gnus abundance was registered in 2014, the minimum abundance was in 2006. The abundance level and the individual components ratio of «GNUS» complex were subject to significant changes depending on the season, in 2006 and 2014, the blackflies were mostly collected, and in 2013, 2015-2017 – mosquitoes. Meteorological and hydrological conditions of winter and spring seasons have the greatest impact on the level of insect populations of «gnuts» complex. Seasonal fluctuations in abundance of blackflies was 3 times, midges ‒ 9, horseflies and mosquitoes ‒ 10. The main limiting factors for the mass development of blood-sucking Diptera in the forest-steppe zone of Tyumen Region are hard and dry winters that cause insect death at the pre-imaginal stages of development, as well as huge temperature swings in spring and summer and small areas of breeding grounds.

Tawny owl prey remains indicate differences in the dynamics of coastal and inland vole populations in southern Finland

AbstractSome studies suggest that mild winters decrease overwinter survival of small mammals or coincide with decreased cyclicity in vole numbers, whereas other studies suggest non‐significant or positive relationships between mild winter conditions and vole population dynamics. We expect for the number of voles to be higher in the rich and low‐lying habitats of the coastal areas than in the less fertile areas inland. We assume that this geographical difference in vole abundances is diminished by mild winters especially in low‐lying habitats. We examine these relationships by generalized linear mixed models using prey remains of breeding tawny owls Strix aluco as a proxy for the abundance of voles. The higher number of small voles in the coastal area than in the inland area suggest that vole populations were denser in the coastal area. Vole populations of both areas were affected by winter weather conditions particularly in March, but these relationships differed between areas. The mild ends of winter with frequent fluctuations of the ambient temperature around the freezing point (“frost seesaw”) constrained significantly the coastal vole populations, while deep snow cover, in general after hard winters, was followed by significantly lowered number of voles only in the inland populations. Our results suggest that coastal vole populations are more vulnerable to mild winters than inland ones. We also show that tawny owl prey remains can be used in a meaningful way to study vole population dynamics.

Reconstruction of the Late Holocene river channel shifts in the North-Eastern part of the Lower Danube Plain based on historical data

Several periods of increased fluvial activity and accelerated runoff / deposition have been identified during the Holocene in different regions of Europe (Macklin et al, 2006). According to Starkel (2002) the older phases were characterized by an incision of deeper and wider tracks and, since Roman period, especially during the past millennium, tendency had changed to aggradation, braiding and river avulsions. The turn to a more stable fluvial regime caused further incisions and the development of narrow and smaller meanders. All these fluvial responses can be mainly correlated with the climatic fluctuations (cooler and wetter phases alternating with drier and warmer ones), socio-economic changes (increased anthropic pressure) or both. The last major period of concentration of extreme meteorological and hydrological events is the Little Ice Age (LIA), which conventionally took place between the 16th and mid 19th century (Lamb, 1984). However in Romania the study of LIA and the associate fluvial effects is rather poor. The data regarding hydro-climatological events (weather conditions, floods) in the medieval period (mostly collected by Topor, 1960) is scarce and based on the few local chronicles and diaries of the foreign travelers. However these confirm the increased frequency and magnitude of the rainfalls in the summer (with several important peaks in the 1590 – 1690 interval) as well as the hard winters well documented for the rest of the continent. Changes in the configuration of the stream network, due to avulsions, can be evaluated based on historical maps only with the first half of the 17th century and the dating of the fluvial records is still missing. The North-Eastern part of the Lower Danube Plain (Fig. 1) is a large alluvial floodplain where Siret River collects several major tributary streams draining SE Carpathians (Putna, Râmnicu Sărat, Buzău) or the Moldavian Tableland (Bârlad), before joining Danube, near Galaţi. Surprisingly Siret’s floodplain (until the confluence with Buzău) it is larger by a couple of kilometers than Danube’s, despite the anastomosed character of the last one. This can indicate a progressive Holocene shift of the Siret’s river course from the Carpathians to the eastern edge of the floodplain or a transformation from a multi-channel to a single channel pattern. The instability was also specific to main tributaries, as is confirmed by the presence of multiple abandoned sinuous courses and relict meander belts in the area. An important shift of the Siret River’s lower course to a more eastern position during medieval times was briefly discussed, for the first time, by Antonovici (1929) based on couple of historical documents. The few questions we will try to answer to in this study are: When was formed the actual configuration of the river network in the study region? What was the impact of the LIA? How relevant can be the analysis of the historical data in the assessment of the river channel shifts?

Evaluation of the vegetative and generative performance of new apple cultivars in the Nyírség region

In this paper we examine apple varieties, which are planted expansively in the development apple orchards of the Western- European countries, but about its production characteristics we don’t have or just few practical experiences in Hungary. These varieties can be described with regular and high yields, aesthetic and alluring appearance in their origin places, what ensure profitable producing for the growers. Under the Hungarian climate which tends to be often extreme (hard cold winters, late spring frosts, summer drought, heat stress) these varieties may behave differently, so before the substantial planting it is expedient to carry out variety evaluations to avoid the later failures. The place of our experiments is located in the Nyírség representing adequately the ecological conditions of the surrounding areas, so the gained results can be adapted easily in the biggest apple production site of Hungary. Regarding the vegetative and the generative parameters of the 14 examined varieties (’Gala Venus Fengal’, ’Gala Decarli-Fendeca’, ’Galaval’, ’Jugala’, ’Gala Schnitzer (S) Schniga’, ’Red Cap Valtod (S)’, ’Early Red One’, ’Jeromine’, ’Crimson Crisp (Co-op 39)’, ’Red Topaz’, ’Wilton’s Red Jonaprince’, ’Red Idared’, ’Fuji September Wonder’, club cultivar) we found significant differences. The ratio of the thickness of trunk and the main branches showed that the trees have an optimal canopy structure in accordance with the Zahn principles, so they are in harmonious growing balance. The ‘Gala’ sport trained to slender spindle produced the highest yields, while the ‘Fuji’ and the ‘Red Delicious’ sport trained to super spindle can be described with the lowest values. All the cultivars reached the eating quality (65-70 mm), from which the ’Red Idared’, the ’Red Jonaprince’ and the ’Red Cap’ produced outstanding fruit size (81-85 mm).

Examination of the vegetative and generative accomplishment of new apple varieties

Our research focuses on apple varieties, what are planted expansively in the development apple orchards of Western-Europe, but about the production characteristics of these varieties we don't have or just few practical experiences in Hungary. These varieties can be described with regular and high yields, aesthetic and alluring appearance in their origin places, what ensure profitable producing for the growers. In our climate what tends to be often extreme (hard cold winters, late spring frosts, summer drought, heat stress) these varieties may behave differently, so before the substantial planting it is expedient to carry out variety evaluations to avoid the later failures. The place of our experimental is located in the Nyírség, what presents adequately the ecological conditions of the surrounding areas, so the gained results can be easily adapted in the biggest apple production site of Hungary. Regarding the vegetative and the generative parameters of the 14 examined varieties ('Schniga', 'Jugala', 'Fendeca', 'Galaval', 'Fengal', 'Red Cap', 'Early Red One', 'Jeromine', 'Crimson Crisp', 'Red Topaz', 'Red Jonaprince', 'Red Idared', 'Fuji SW', club variety) we found significant differences, which is the result of the genetically coded characteristics of the varieties, the effects of the vintage, the different training methods and the correlations of these factors.

Analysis of some limiting ecological factors on the example of the distribution of the genusTiliaL. cultivated in Latvia

The study was performed on the basis of an inventory of the genus Tilia in Latvia. A total of 134 dendrological objects were inventoried in order to clarify factors limiting the distribution of linden in the territory of Latvia. During the 2007-2013 inventory 47 taxa of Tilia were found. The taxa and their winter hardiness were evaluated according to the Sokolov scale. In the interpretation of the distribution of taxa 16 geographical and climatic factors were used. Spearman's rank correlation indicated a connection with 11 factors, among them distance to the sea, height above sea level, average January temperature, sum of negative temperatures, and amount of annual precipitation. The results of statistical analysis demonstrated an irregular connection between the geographical distribution of the genus Tilia and ecological factors. A negative correlation with height above sea level was observed for T. americana, T. × moltkei, and T. platyphyllos subsp. platyphyllos. Analysis of winter hardiness of trees revealed that trees get frozen in hard winters although they grow in hardiness zones that fit linden.

Analysis of Driver Behaviour and Crash Characteristics during Adverse Weather Conditions

Adverse weather and road conditions, following rain, fog and temperature fluctuations are the major causes of an elevated risk of traffic accidents and compromised flow in India. Drivers can control their risks at several levels, however it is useful to consider driver behaviour as hierarchically organized, separating tactical and operational on road control and level decision making. The former is exemplified by compensating for the weather – related risk with adaptive driving behaviour, such as lower speeds, longer headways and avoidance of overtaking on two –lane roads. However in countries like India where hard winters and impaired road conditions are not unusual enough to stop daily routines, people are not free to make safe travel decisions, despite their safe intentions. So it is in need to study driver behaviour and crash characteristics during Adverse Weather Conditions.

White-tailed Sea Eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) defend small home ranges in north-east Germany throughout the year

Location data of four White-tailed Sea Eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) (WTSE) from four pairs equipped with GPS data loggers or automated GPS-GSM units and visual behaviour observations were used to record their home range size and territoriality. Between 18 and 571 positions were received from the satellite devices. Exten- sive excursions were identified by defining the distance to the activity centre and have been removed before home ranges were computed. Home range size varied consider- ably among the individuals tracked. Minimum convex polygons, with outliers removed, ranged between 2.25 and 19.16 km 2 and 95 % kernel contours (calculated in Ranges 8) varied from 2.37 to 12.04 km 2 in the Mecklenburg Lake District. Occurrence of territorial behaviour as identified by visual observations changed significantly throughout the year with a maximum in May and a minimum in Decem- ber. An optimal habitat quality characterized by shallow and fish-rich freshwater lakes with undisturbed nesting areas in surrounding forests is a prerequisite for small home ranges and for the high abundance of breeding birds found within the Mecklenburg Lake district. The year- round territoriality is attributed to a sufficient food supply throughout the seasons, either by mild winters allowing access to fish and/or waterfowl on open waters or, in hard winters, to the availability of carcasses and remains of larger animals from hunting activities when frozen lakes restricte access to prey.

Roots and Routes: Road from Home to America, Middle East and Diaspora, about Being Armenian Genocide Female Survivor

Adolf Hitler, on August 22, 1939 stated, “I have given orders to my Death Units to exterminate without mercy or pity men, women, and children belonging to the Polish-speaking race. It is only in this manner that we can acquire the vital territory which we need. After all, who remembers today the extermination of the Armenians?” (Kherdian, 1979).Armenia is a land which has been ravaged by war on far too many occasions. Other nations keep turning it into a battlefield and tearing it apart. Armenian people have survived for many generations and their stories are told and retold during the hard winters. Armenians’ survived just as Armenia and Armenian culture have survived (Downing, 1972). Therefore, diverse life experience, traditions, histories, values, world views, and perspectives of the diverse cultural groups make up a society and preserve culture (Mendoza and Reese, 2001).In this study, two Armenian books “The Road from Home” and “The Knock at the Door” were analyzed. These books are organized as personal stories and experiences about Armenian female genocide survivors and are supplemented by background information on Armenian people before and after the genocide of their culture, including a brief history, discussion of traditions, recipes, music and religion. These stories are a great resource for educators, historians, students, and anyone interested in Armenian culture. That is culture is an historical process of humanity that preserves identity and ties the people together. Additionally, culture is the link between people and their value systems. Therefore, Norms and values addressed in stories are important factors that give continuity to cultures (Stephens, 1992).

Importance of the arboreal-shrubby hedges as habitat for birds in an intensive farming area of the Turin-Cuneo plain (NW Italy).

We sampled the bird community of hedges and tree rows along the waterways of a portion of the western Po plain with a surface of about 320 Kmq. Maize fields cover more than 60% of the agricultural surface crossed by many natural and artificial waterways both in the “Piana di Carmagnola” (a flood plain at 235-240 m asl) and in the “Pianalto di Poirino” (a lower plateau at 255-265 m asl). The observations were collected by transect counts during the months of May and June 2009, and expressed as IKA. We detected 45 species and Nightingale, Blackcap and Blackbird were the most abundant of the 34 breeding species that include 2 SPEC 2 (Red Backed Shrike and Turtle Dove) and one SPEC 3 (Green Woodpecker). The low numbers of Tits population and the absence of Wren may be partly due to the effects of the previous hard winters. Hedges in the floodplains were richer than those in the lower plateau and have more bush-nesting birds and more trans-Saharan migrants. The Nightingale population in the hedges of the whole area can be estimated at about 1200 pairs. The research confirmed the importance of the presence of hedges and tree rows within the intensively cultivated plain, which allow a number of species of birds to settle and nest in an area otherwise extremely and increasingly trivialized by monocultures and commercial and industrial settlements.

Castorid Phylogenetics: Implications for the Evolution of Swimming and Tree-Exploitation in Beavers

Beavers (Castoridae) are semiaquatic rodents that modify forest and aquatic habitats by exploiting trees as a source of food and building material. The capacity of beavers to transform habitats has attracted interest from a variety of researchers, including ecologists, geomorphologists and evolutionary biologists. This study uses morphological and behavioral evidence from the fossil record to investigate the evolutionary history of tree-exploitation and swimming in beavers. The findings suggest that both behaviors appeared within a single castorid lineage by the beginning of the Miocene, roughly 24 million years ago. Biogeographic results support the hypothesis that tree-exploitation evolved at high latitudes, possibly influenced by the development of hard winters.

The Possible Climatic Impact in China of Iceland's Eldgjá Eruption Inferred from Historical Sources

Based on Chinese historical sources, the possible climatic impact in China of the prolonged Eldgja eruption starting around 934 AD was investigated. An extremely hot summer was reported in 934 AD; hundreds of people died of the intense heat of this summer in Luoyang, the capital of the Later Tang Empire (923–936 AD). Snowless (and possibly also mild) winters probably occurred successively following the Eldgja eruption until 938 AD. In 939 AD, cold weather set in abruptly and lasted for about 3 years; whereas peak cooling occurred in 939AD. In the summer of 939 AD, it snowed in the southeast of the Inner Mongolia Plateau (about 40–44∘N, 113–123∘E). From 939AD to 941 AD, hard winters occurred successively in China. Worse, unprecedented drought and plague of locusts broke out in 942 AD and persisted in 943 AD. More than several hundred thousand people were starved to death. This catastrophe was at least partly responsible for the collapse of the Later Jin Dynasty in China. By comparison with the tree-ring evidence and uncovered European historical evidence, the spatial response to the Eldgja eruption appeared to be complex, whereas hemispheric or global cooling occurred in 939–942 AD.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF SOIL COVERS AND OF FOREST STATIONS FROM ŢIBLEŞULUI MOUNTAINS (U.P. IV)

The Ţiblesului Mountains, from the structural point of view, they belong to the sedimentary-eruptive subunit formed by pedogenetical deposits, from which from time to time appear columns of eruptive rocks (andesits), which overwhelm the surroundings with a couple of hundred meters (The Ţiblesului Peak 1842m), being formed in the Miocene. Climatologically it belongs to the provinces Dfk and DfcK, meaning a rainy climate, wet boreal, with hard winters, and cold summers, with an annual medium temperature of 7oC and a multiannual pluviometrical regime of 1100 mm at the lower vegetation limit and 1400 mm at the upper vegetation limit. The forestry vegetation is represented by The Under Alpine Forestry Vegetation Level (2%), the Mountain Spruce Level, (6%), The Mountain Level Of Mixtures (28%) and The Pre Mountain Level Of Fagus, which is the most frequent (64%).The forestry stations are represented by: Mountain Pre Under Alpine of Spruce Pi, on cliffs end excessive erosion – in the under alpine level; Mountain Of Spruce, Pm, prepodzol-podzol, edaphically average, with Luzula sylvatica, Mountain of Spruce Pi, podzolical, with brut humus, edaphically under average and low, with Vaccinium, in the spruce level; Mountain of Mixtures, Pi, on cliffs and excessive erosion, Mountain of Mixtures, Pi, podzolical, edaphically under average, with moss and other acid likely plants, Mountain of Mixtures, Ps (Pm) districambosoil, edaphically average, with Asperula-Dentaria, in The Level of Mixtures of Fagus With Spruce, Mountain, Pre Mountain of Fagus, podzolical, edaphically average, with Luzula Calamagrotis, Mountain, Pre Mountain of Fagus, districambosiol, eutricambosoil, edaphically average, with Asperula-Dentaria, Mountain Pre Mountain of Fagus Pm, aluvisoil with moderate humus, Mountain, Pre Mountain of Fagus, Ps districabosoil in high plains, in the fagus level.

What triggers facultative winter migration of Great Bustard (Otis tarda) in Central Europe?

The Great Bustard is on the brink of extinction in Central Europe. Its population is known to suffer high mortality during hard winters, particularly when severe weather conditions cause migration. Long-term winter food management in two populations in Germany did not prevent migration events. To identify migration-triggering factors we tested the potential influence of snow, temperature, phase of winter and development of a tradition of migration. Comparing migratory behaviour with long-term local weather records, we found that snow cover is a much stronger trigger for migration than frost and low temperatures. We conclude that snow heavily affects the Great Bustard’s energy balance mediated not only by limited food access but also by the particular properties of its plumage. This could explain migration events despite food availability and is consistent with our results concerning a tendency for females to undertake facultative winter migration more than males. Available data are currently insufficient to confirm or reject the idea that Great Bustard populations develop a tradition of migratory behaviour following a previous winter migration, and we found no evidence for a decrease in the disposition of the Great Bustard to migrate during the course of winter.

Alimentation d'urgence de cerfs de Virginie lors d'hivers rigoureux: Rabattage de tiges non commerciales versus distribution de moulée

In northeastern regions of North America, deer sometimes face hard winters, which may kill more than 40 percent of the population. Management of their winter habitat is not enough to avoid extensive losses from starvation. Emergency feeding programs have therefore been developed to reduce population fluctuations, which make it difficult to manage the species. During the winters of 1996 and 1997, we simulated two emergency feeding programs for deer in two deer yards located in Bas Saint-Laurent, Quebec. One of the programs was linked to the cutting of stems of non-commercial species, and the other to the distribution of a specially adapted animal feed. In accordance to the regional intervention strategy, we supplied additional feed to satisfy about 50 percent of the deers' feed requirements. In this study, we have compared the costs of the two programs during four and eight week periods. In comparison to stem cuttings, feed distribution reduces by two to three times the expenses related to the program, while facilitating spatial distribution of the food. In conditions encountered in northeastern North America, feed distribution is definitely the most economically effective method of establishing an emergency feeding program for deer. Key words: costs, branch cutting, browsing, feed, emergency feeding, winter, deer yard, deer, Odocoileus virginianus

Declining Ring-Necked Pheasants in the Klamath Basin, California: II. Survival, Productivity, and Cover

Cover condition and its influence on nesting success, survival, and body condition of ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) were evaluated at Tule Lake National Wildlife Refuge (TLNWR) and Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge (LKNWR). Inadequate nesting cover was responsible for extremely low nest success early in the nesting season at TLNWR. Later in the season at TLNWR, spring-planted crops provided cover to conceal nesting and renesting hens; however, only 0.07 young were produced (to 1 August) per hen during the study. The extremely low reproductive rates were well below those required to maintain a stable population. At TLNWR, most adult mortality during spring and early summer (before crops provided adequate cover) apparently resulted from predation by golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos). This mortality occurred weeks before insecticide applications. Hard winters (cold temperatures and heavy snowfall) periodically reduce the pheasant population in the Klamath Basin and again greatly reduced numbers during the last year of this study. Unfortunately, pheasant populations declined under the conditions found during this study and were unable to recover from the hard winter of 1992 to 1993. Mean body mass and tarsal length of adult hen pheasants at TLNWR, which is intensively farmed, were less than those for hens at LKNWR, which is not intensively farmed. Results of our study suggest that TLNWR hens may have been nutritionally stressed, and that the amount and distribution of vegetative cover needs to be improved at TLNWR. Habitat management of edge cover along agricultural crops should feature perennial grasses and legumes with small tracts of land interspersed throughout the agricultural fields to provide alternative cover for wildlife in general including pheasants.