Hand Rotation Task Research Articles

The role of the primary motor cortex in motor imagery: A theta burst stimulation study.

While mentally simulated actions activate similar neural structures to overt movement, the role of the primary motor cortex (PMC) in motor imagery remains disputed. The aim of the study was to use continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) to modulate corticospinal activity to investigate the putative role of the PMC in implicit motor imagery in young adults with typical and atypical motor ability. A randomized, double blind, sham‐controlled, crossover, offline cTBS protocol was applied to 35 young adults. During three separate sessions, adults with typical and low motor ability (developmental coordination disorder [DCD]), received active cTBS to the PMC and supplementary motor area (SMA), and sham stimulation to either the PMC or SMA. Following stimulation, participants completed measures of motor imagery (i.e., hand rotation task) and visual imagery (i.e., letter number rotation task). Although active cTBS significantly reduced corticospinal excitability in adults with typical motor ability, neither task performance was altered following active cTBS to the PMC or SMA, compared to performance after sham cTBS. These results did not differ across motor status (i.e., typical motor ability and DCD). These findings are not consistent with our hypothesis that the PMC (and SMA) is directly involved in motor imagery. Instead, previous motor cortical activation observed during motor imagery may be an epiphenomenon of other neurophysiological processes and/or activity within brain regions involved in motor imagery. This study highlights the need to consider multi‐session theta burst stimulation application and its neural effects when probing the putative role of motor cortices in motor imagery.

Mental rotation performance in young adults with and without developmental coordination disorder.

While there have been consistent behavioural reports of atypical hand rotation task (HRT) performance in adults with developmental coordination disorder (DCD), this study aimed to clarify whether this deficit could be attributed to specific difficulties in motor imagery (MI), as opposed to broad deficits in general mental rotation. Participants were 57 young adults aged 18-30years with (n=22) and without DCD (n=35). Participants were compared on the HRT, a measure of MI, and the letter number rotation task (LNRT), a common visual imagery task. Only participants whose behavioural performance on the HRT suggested use of a MI strategy were included in group comparisons. Young adults with DCD were significantly less efficient compared to controls when completing the HRT yet showed comparable performance on the LNRT relative to adults with typical motor ability. Our data are consistent with the view that atypical HRT performance in adults with DCD is likely to be attributed to specific difficulties engaging in MI, as opposed to deficits in general mental rotation. Based on the theory that MI provides insight into the integrity of internal action representations, these findings offer further support for the internal modelling deficit hypothesis of DCD.

Effects of virtual reality training intervention on predictive motor control of children with DCD – A randomized controlled trial

It has been hypothesised that deficits in the functions of predictive motor control and internal modeling may contribute to motor control issues of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). Virtual reality (VR) technologies have great potential to provide opportunity for Motor observation and motor imagery (MI) which could enhance learning and development of motor skills in children with DCD. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the benefits of a VR training intervention to improve predictive motor control functions of children with DCD. Forty female children with DCD (aged 7–10) were randomly assigned to VR and control groups. In this study, an experimental pre-post and follow-up design was used, and Predictive motor control functions were measured before and after the VR intervention and two-months later. Predictive motor control was evaluated using MI (by hand rotation task), action planning (by sword placement task), and rapid and online control (by rotational tracking task) tests. VR intervention consisted of a selection of Xbox 360 Kinect games that were performed for sixteen 30-min sessions over 8 weeks. Compared to the control group, the VR group improved significantly on measures of MI, motor planning, and rapid and online control scores from pre- to post-test and retained their performance to follow-up. Overall, it seems that virtual reality training program may be used as an appropriate intervention approach for developing the ability of MI and predictive motor control functions in DCD children.

The association between mental rotation capacity and motor impairment in children with obesity-an exploratory study.

BackgroundMotor impairments are relatively common in children with obesity and evidence suggests that these difficulties go beyond those expected based on the extra weight. This study aimed to investigate the mental rotation capacity in children with obesity, i.e., the ability to mentally view and rotate spatial information, which is a function of both visual-spatial and action representation processes. In particular, we examined whether children with obesity solved mental hand rotation tasks using an egocentric perspective (i.e., motor imagery) and if performance was related to their motor competence.MethodsFifty children (age range: 7–11 y) of which 19 with obesity and motor impairments (OB-) as assessed by the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (2nd version), 13 with obesity without motor impairments (OB+) and 18 control children with a healthy weight (HW) and normal motor competence, were submitted to a classic hand rotation task. Sitting at a desk the children were instructed to indicate the laterality of a picture of a hand displayed on a monitor as quickly and as accurately as possible.ResultsThe results indicate no differences in response time between groups (2,648 ms, 2,558 ms, 2,664 ms for OB-, OB+ and HW respectively). The OB- group, however, had significantly lower accuracy rates and inverse efficiency scores than the HW group (Accuracy: 72% vs. 89%; Inverse efficiency: 4,428 vs. 3,238). No difference was observed in accuracy and inverse efficiency between the OB+ and HW group (Accuracy: 86%; Inverse efficiency: 3,432). In all groups, slower and more error-prone responses were observed when the angle of rotation was larger and when the hand on display was incongruent with the posture of the participants, which indicates that judgments were made from an egocentric perspective and involved motor imagery.ConclusionAll children, including those with obesity, appear to engage in motor imagery. This notion needs to be investigated further in children with obesity and motor impairments, given their generally lower accuracy and decreased efficiency, which may indicate a reduced mental rotation capacity.

Abnormalities of Motor Imagery Ability Associated with Spatial Working Memory Dysfunction in Chronic Schizophrenic Patients

Background: Spatial working memory (SWM) and mental imagery involve the processes of encoding, maintaining, and transforming spatial information. Patients with schizophrenia show impairments in both SWM and mental imagery. Yet, there is scarce evidence on the relationship between impairment in the two cognitive functions in the patients. Objectives: The goal of the present study was to investigate motor imagery ability and SWM function and their relationship in schizophrenic patients. Methods: The present case-control study compared the performance of 18 schizophrenic patients and 18 normal persons. The motor imagery was evaluated with the mental hand rotation task (HRT) and SWM was examined with the Dot test of visuospatial working memory (VSWM) across the three delays. Results: The comparison of HRT results between the patients and the controls showed a slower and less accurate performance of the patients. On the Dot test of VSWM, performance was significantly less accurate at the three delays in schizophrenic patients relative to the controls. Moreover, there was a negative significant correlation between mental rotation accuracy and distance inaccuracy across the three delays in schizophrenic patients. Conclusions: These results provide further evidence that impaired passive maintenance of internal representation might be the underlying mechanism of motor imagery dysfunction in patients with schizophrenia.

Alpha Phase Synchronization of Parietal Areas Reflects Switch-Specific Activity During Mental Rotation: An EEG Study.

Action selection is typically influenced by the history of previously selected actions (the immediate motor history), which is apparent when a selected action is switched from a previously selected one to a new one. This history dependency of the action selection is even observable during a mental hand rotation task. Thus, we hypothesized that the history-dependent interaction of actions might share the same neural mechanisms among different types of action switching tasks. An alternative hypothesis is that the history dependency of the mental hand rotation task might involve a distinctive neural mechanism from the general action selection tasks so that the reported observation with the mental hand rotation task in the previously published literature might lack generality. To refute this possibility, we compared neural activity during action switching in the mental hand rotation with the general action switching task which is triggered by a simple visual stimulus. In the experiment, to focus on temporal changes in whole brain oscillatory activity, we recorded electroencephalographic (EEG) signals while 25 healthy subjects performed the two tasks. For analysis, we examined functional connectivity reflected in EEG phase synchronization and analyzed temporal changes in brain activity when subjects switched from a previously selected action to a new action. Using a clustering-based method to identify functional connectivity reflected in time-varying phase synchronization, we identified alpha-power inter-parietal synchronization that appears only during switching of the selected action, regardless of the hand laterality in the presented image. Moreover, the current study revealed that for both tasks the extent of this alpha-power inter-parietal synchronization was altered by the history of the selected actions. These findings suggest that alpha-power inter-parietal synchronization is engaged as a form of switching-specific functional connectivity, and that switching-related activity is independent of the task paradigm.

Functional but Inefficient Kinesthetic Motor Imagery in Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Whether action representation in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is deficient remains controversial, as previous studies of action observation or imitation report conflicting results. Here we investigated the characteristics of action representation in adolescents with ASD through motor imagery (MI) using a hand rotation and an object rotation task. Comparable with the typically-developing group, theindividuals with ASD were able to spontaneously use kinesthetic MI to perform the hand rotation task, as manifested by the significant biomechanical effects. However, the ASD group performed significantly slower only in the hand rotation task, but not in the object rotation task. The findings suggest that the adolescents with ASD showed inefficient but functional kinesthetic MI, implicating that their action representation might be preserved.

Development of motor imagery and anticipatory action planning in children with developmental coordination disorder – A longitudinal approach

Children with impaired motor coordination (or Development Coordination Disorder – DCD) have difficulty with the predictive control of movements, evidenced by cross-sectional studies that show impaired motor imagery and action planning abilities. What remains unclear is whether this deficit in predictive control reflects immaturity of the motor system (a developmental delay) or some deviation from normal development (a disorder). To advance this discussion the present study used a longitudinal design to examine the development of motor imagery and action planning in children with DCD. Thirty children were included in the DCD group (aged 6–11years) and age- and gender-matched to 30 controls. The DCD group had a mABC-2 score≤16th percentile, the control group>20th percentile. Motor imagery was assessed with the hand rotation task, action planning with a test for end-state comfort. Children participated in three measurements, with one year in between measurements. Results showed that children with DCD were slower and less accurate than their typically developing peers in all subsequent years but were able to improve their motor imagery ability over time. Furthermore, children with DCD showed less planning for ESC at the start of the present study, but were able to catch up with their peers during two-year follow up. These results exemplify that improvement of motor imagery and action planning ability is possible in DCD, and they lend theoretical support to the use of new training techniques that focus on training motor imagery to improve motor skills in children with DCD.

Diminished motor imagery capability in adults with motor impairment: An fMRI mental rotation study

Recent research has demonstrated that adults with probable Developmental Coordination Disorder (pDCD) show similar behavioural deficits as those observed in children DCD when performing a motor imagery task. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the pattern of neural activation in adults with pDCD during motor imagery differed from adults without motor skill impairment. Twelve adults with pDCD (5 male; age M=24.5 yrs) and 11 adults without pDCD (6 male; age M=26.7 yrs) participated. The hand rotation task was used to assess motor imagery ability, while functional neural images were acquired using a 3T MR scanner. Performance on the hand task in both groups conformed to the biomechanical constraints of real movement, supporting the use of motor imagery to complete the task. Comparisons of response time and accuracy data showed no significant group differences. Comparison of the BOLD signal activation maps identified a significant parametric difference between groups. The% BOLD signal change for increasing angle of rotation showed greater activation in controls compared to the pDCD group in the occipito-parietal and parieto-frontal networks including the middle frontal gyrus bilaterally, the left superior parietal lobe as well as in the cerebellum (lobule VI). The pattern of reduced activation in adults with pDCD is consistent with recent studies of childhood DCD that suggest atypical activation in frontal, parietal and cerebellar areas, and supports the theory that this type of impairment may be associated with disruption of parieto-frontal and parieto-cerebellar networks.

Mental Imagery in First-Degree Relatives of Patients with Schizophrenia

Background: Implicit mental rotation has been studied in patients with schizophrenia; however, no research has examined it in relatives of the patients. Objectives: This study compared the performances of schizophrenia patients with their unaffected relatives to shed further light on the nature of cognitive functioning in schizophrenia relatives. Methods: We examined mental rotation in 25 schizophrenia patients, 25 of their first-degree relatives and 25 controls, using the Hand Rotation Task. In this task, the participants had to determine the laterality of hands showed in various orientations. Results: The results of this study revealed that the mean error rate of the relatives was significantly different between patients and healthy controls (all P < 0.03), ii), the mean response times of both patients and relatives were significantly slower than controls (all P < 0.004). Conclusions: These findings suggest that mental rotation may be a trait marker for schizophrenia.

Testing predictive control of movement in children with developmental coordination disorder using converging operations.

Recent systematic reviews (Wilson etal., 2013, Dev. Med. Child Neurol., 55, 217; Adams etal., 2014, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 47C, 225) suggest that a common underlying problem in developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is the internal modelling deficit. The study presented here is the first to test this hypothesis using a within-subject design, assessing motor imagery, action planning, and rapid online control (ROC) in a sample of children screened rigorously for DCD. Participants were 66 children; 33 children (26 boys and seven girls) aged 6-11years in the DCD group and 33 controls (gender and age matched). Motor imagery was assessed with the hand rotation task (HRT), action planning with an end-state comfort effect test, and ROC with the double-step pointing task. Results showed that children with DCD were slower and less accurate than controls in the HRT. Reduced forward planning for comfortable end-state was also shown in DCD. Finally, no group differences were found on the ROC task. Collectively, children with DCD manifest deficits in the internal modelling of movements, but this varies under different task constraints, particularly those related to movement complexity.

Modeling the Maturation of Grip Selection Planning and Action Representation: Insights from Typical and Atypical Motor Development.

We investigated the purported association between developmental changes in grip selection planning and improvements in an individual’s capacity to represent action at an internal level [i.e., motor imagery (MI)]. Participants were groups of healthy children aged 6–7 years and 8–12 years respectively, while a group of adolescents (13–17 years) and adults (18–34 years) allowed for consideration of childhood development in the broader context of motor maturation. A group of children aged 8–12 years with probable DCD (pDCD) was included as a reference group for atypical motor development. Participants’ proficiency to generate and/or engage internal action representations was inferred from performance on the hand rotation task, a well-validated measure of MI. A grip selection task designed to elicit the end-state comfort (ESC) effect provided a window into the integrity of grip selection planning. Consistent with earlier accounts, the efficiency of grip selection planning followed a non-linear developmental progression in neurotypical individuals. As expected, analysis confirmed that these developmental improvements were predicted by an increased capacity to generate and/or engage internal action representations. The profile of this association remained stable throughout the (typical) developmental spectrum. These findings are consistent with computational accounts of action planning that argue that internal action representations are associated with the expression and development of grip selection planning across typical development. However, no such association was found for our sample of children with pDCD, suggesting that individuals with atypical motor skill may adopt an alternative, sub-optimal strategy to plan their grip selection compared to their same-age control peers.

Motor imagery ability and internal representation of movement in children with probable developmental coordination disorder

It has been hypothesised that deficits in the functioning of the mirror neuron system (MNS) and internal modelling may contribute to the motor impairments associated with DCD. These processes can be explored behaviourally through motor imagery paradigms. Motor imagery proficiency of children with and without probable DCD (pDCD) was examined using a complex hand rotation task to explore whether motor imagery strategies could be used during more complex tasks. Forty-four boys aged 7–13years participated, 22 with pDCD (mean=9.90years±1.57) and 22 controls (mean=9.68years±1.53). Participants completed the task twice: with and without motor imagery instructions. Stimuli were presented in two rotational axes – palm/back, and eight 45° rotational steps. Both groups showed evidence of following the biomechanical and postural constraints of actual movements. Responses of children with pDCD were slower and less accurate than controls, with group differences increasing alongside task complexity. A greater impact of biomechanical constraints for accuracy was observed in the DCD group. The response characteristics of children with pDCD likely reflects a reduced capacity to mentally manipulate a body schema and reduced visuo-motor processing capabilities. Behaviourally, these processes are linked to MNS and internal modelling function, suggesting deficits in these systems may contribute to the movement difficulties characteristic of DCD.

Reduced motor imagery efficiency is associated with online control difficulties in children with probable developmental coordination disorder

Recent evidence indicates that the ability to correct reaching movements in response to unexpected target changes (i.e., online control) is reduced in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Recent computational modeling of human reaching suggests that these inefficiencies may result from difficulties generating and/or monitoring internal representations of movement. This study was the first to test this putative relationship empirically. We did so by investigating the degree to which the capacity to correct reaching mid-flight could be predicted by motor imagery (MI) proficiency in a sample of children with probable DCD (pDCD). Thirty-four children aged 8 to 12 years (17 children with pDCD and 17 age-matched controls) completed the hand rotation task, a well-validated measure of MI, and a double-step reaching task (DSRT), a protocol commonly adopted to infer one's capacity for correcting reaching online. As per previous research, children with pDCD demonstrated inefficiencies in their ability to generate internal action representations and correct their reaching online, demonstrated by inefficient hand rotation performance and slower correction to the reach trajectory following unexpected target perturbation during the DSRT compared to age-matched controls. Critically, hierarchical moderating regression demonstrated that even after general reaching ability was controlled for, MI efficiency was a significant predictor of reaching correction efficiency, a relationship that was constant across groups. Ours is the first study to provide direct pilot evidence in support of the view that a decreased capacity for online control of reaching typical of DCD may be associated with inefficiencies generating and/or using internal representations of action.

Neural evidence for compromised mental imagery in individuals with chronic schizophrenia.

Mental imagery impairment has been reported in schizophrenia. The present study aimed to investigate the neural evidence for mental imagery impairment in patients with schizophrenia. The study participants included 20 patients with chronic schizophrenia and 18 healthy control subjects. Event-related potentials were recorded during a mental hand rotation task, in which participants were instructed to judge the laterality of hands displayed in different orientations. The performances of patients were significantly less accurate and slower than control subjects on hand rotation task. Moreover, the patients showed significantly reduced rotation-related negativity amplitude for mental rotation effect. The results demonstrate mental imagery impairment in patients with schizophrenia at both the behavioral and neural levels.

Relationship between Motor Skill Impairments and Motor Imagery Ability in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Pilot Study Using the Hand Rotation Task

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between motor skill impairments and motor imagery ability in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). The participants were 19 children with ASD, aged 7 - 16 years. We conducted two tasks: movement assessment battery for children-2 (MABC-2) and hand rotation task. The MABC-2 is a motor test that can assess total motor ability, and three sub-domain abilities. Hand rotation is a cognitive task that can evaluate motor imagery ability. Results indicated the possibility that severities of motor skill impairments were interrelated with motor imagery ability in children with ASD. First, fine motor control ability was strongly interrelated with the general response speed of the hand rotation task. Second, balance ability was interrelated with the fit and slope coefficients of the hand rotation task. The internal modeling deficit seems to play an important role in children, either with developmental coordina-tion disorder or ASD.

Motor imagery is less efficient in adults with probable developmental coordination disorder: evidence from the hand rotation task.

The present study aimed to provide preliminary insight into the integrity of motor imagery (MI) in adults with probable developmental coordination disorder (pDCD). Based on a strong body of evidence indicating that paediatric samples of DCD often experience difficulties engaging MI, we hypothesised that young adults with pDCD would demonstrate similar difficulties. The performance of 12 young adults (19-35 years) with pDCD was compared to 47 age-matched controls on a traditional mental hand rotation task. Mean inverse efficiency scores were generated for each participant by dividing each participant's mean RT by their proportion of correct responses at each of the stimuli presentation conditions. Preliminary analysis revealed that the performance profiles of individuals with pDCD and age-matched controls showed evidence of being constrained by the biomechanical and postural constraints of real movement, suggesting that both groups engaged in an embodied (MI) strategy to complete the task. Despite engaging in a MI strategy, however, young adults with pDCD were nonetheless significantly less efficient when doing so, shown by significant main effects for group on all group efficiency comparisons. Based on the assumption that MI provides insight into the internal 'neural' action representation that precedes action, we argue that the less efficient MI performance demonstrated by young adults with pDCD may indicate inefficiencies engaging or implementing internal action representations. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Implementation of specific motor expertise during a mental rotation task of hands

Mental rotation of the hands classically induces kinesthetic effects according to the direction of the rotation, with faster response times to the hands' medial rotations compared with lateral rotations, and is thus commonly used to induce engagement in motor imagery (MI). In the present study, we compared the performances of table tennis players (experts on hand movements), who commonly execute and observe fast hand movements, to those of soccer players (non-experts on hand movements) on a mental rotation task of hands. Our results showed a significant effect of the direction of rotation (DOR) confirming the engagement of the participants in MI. In addition, only hand movement experts were faster when the task figures corresponded to their dominant hand compared with the non-dominant hand, revealing a selective effect of motor expertise. Interestingly, the effect of the DOR collapsed in hand movement experts only when the task figures corresponded to their dominant hand, but it is noteworthy that lateral and medial rotations of the right-hand stimuli were not faster than medial rotations of the left-hand stimuli. These results are discussed in relation to possible strategies during the task. Overall, the present study highlights the embodied nature of the mental rotation task of hands by revealing selective effects of motor expertise.

Assessing motor imagery using the hand rotation task: Does performance change across childhood?

This study examined at what age children can engage in the hand rotation task (as a measure of motor imagery); whether engagement changes across development and; the influence of age and motor skill on performance. Children were aged 5–12years (N=101; 52 girls), with no IQ or motor skill impairment. Less than 40% of 5–6year olds completed the hand rotation with sufficient accuracy for further analysis, compared with 80% of 7–8year olds, and 90% aged 9 and above. From age 7, either or both response time (RT) and accuracy conformed to the biomechanical constraints of corresponding physical movements. Although RT did not improve with age, accuracy did, with 11year olds significantly more accurate than 7 and 8year olds. Importantly, efficiency (RT/accuracy) improved with age and both age, in months, and motor skill level were significant predictors of efficiency, accounting for 35% and 8% of variability, respectively. Improvements in motor imagery ability during childhood are likely the result of increased neural efficiency, developing as the result of complex interactions between endogenous and exogenous factors. This highlights the need for a multidisciplinary approach to further our understanding of the emergence of motor imagery ability.

Abnormalities of Motor Imagery and Relationship With Depressive Symptoms in Mildly Disabling Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis

The effectiveness of motor imagery (MI) as an adjunct to physical rehabilitation has previously been shown. Motor imagery ability can be affected by neurologic disorders that affect motor and cognitive function. This study was designed to assess MI ability in persons with mildly disabling relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) based on the functional and cognitive dysfunctions. Twenty-two participants with RRMS and 23 age-, gender-, and education-matched comparison subjects were evaluated by a battery of MI tasks, including a kinesthetic and visual imagery questionnaire, a mental hand rotation task, and a visual guided pointing task. There was no significant difference in MI vividness between the participants with MS and the comparison group, but the accuracy and temporal correspondence of MI in the participants with MS differed significantly from those in the comparison group. Depression scores were significantly higher in participants with MS (P < 0.001), and depression was significantly correlated with disability (r = 0.4; P < 0.05). The correlation between accuracy of MI in the participants with MS and their cognitive ability was significant (r = 0.57; P < 0.05). The MI duration of participants with MS was significantly correlated with their disability (r = 0.59; P < 0.05) and their cognitive ability (r = -0.38; P = 0.009). The preservation of MI ability was observed in participants with RRMS; however, abnormalities in accuracy and temporal aspects of MI were observed even in the participants with mild disease. Abnormalities in temporal aspects and accuracy of MI were related to disability and cognitive ability, respectively. In participants with MS, depression should be considered as a confounding factor for the MI task results. Our finding could be considered in the application of MI during the rehabilitation of persons with MS.