Hallstatt Period Research Articles

Traceology suggests an unexpected use of antler cheekpieces from the Early Iron Age site at Gzin, Poland

Archaeological data confirm the widespread use of horse tack throughout the North European Bronze Age and the succeeding Hallstatt period in an inventory that included metal cheekpieces, phalerae, rein-knobs and other horse-related accessories. Similar usage has been assumed in the region of northern Poland, which has also furnished evidence for the use of horse gear accessories made of antler. This paper reports the results of traceological, isotopic and experimental research on three antler cheekpieces found at the Early Iron Age stronghold of Gzin in northern Poland and relates them further with archaeological and ethnographic patterns of horse exploitation. The results indicate that the artefacts from Gzin have rare comparanda and are isotopically consistent with the δ18Ow range of the site location, which can both be taken as evidence of their local origin. Moreover, traceological and experimental evidence from this study places the function and use of the analysed objects into a new light, undermining their use for horseback riding and suggesting that they were employed as cheekpiece coverings. Combined with the ethnographic record, ceramic iconography and archaeolinguistics, our findings fuel a discussion of deer valorisation during the Lusatian period in Poland, showing that the cheekpieces from Gzin may have served as elements of deer headgear.

A fabric from the Hallstatt period yet unseen in Central Poland – some remarks on the find from Dąbrowa, Wieluń County

Abstract During excavations carried out in 2023 at the cemetery of the Lusatian culture in Dąbrowa, site 2, Wieluń County, an urnless cremation burial was discovered (Object 24), which is dated generally to the Hallstatt period. Burnt human bones were scattered throughout the object, which form a relatively compact cluster in the central part of the grave. Ceramic fragments from various vessels were found in the fill of the grave cavity. Metal objects, both bronze and iron, showed signs of being smoldered in the fire. This fosters the conclusion that they had been burned with the deceased on the pyre and placed in the grave together with burned human bones. At the same time, such a state of preservation of the grave offerings made it impossible to specify the dating of the tomb. Within the grave, a fragment of an iron plate was found, on which mineralized remains of fabric were preserved. Technological analysis showed that it was a half-basket weave fabric of a very high quality, made of thin z-single yarn (0.25–0.30 mm and 0.40–0.50 mm) and of surprisingly high thread count (32–34/12–14 threads per cm). In the basin of the Vistula and the Oder rivers, none of the fabrics discovered so far had similar parameters. On the other hand, textiles from the main canters of weaving production at the time, such as the Hallstatt culture and the Scandinavian area, showed similar characteristics, but only in rare examples. This highlights the importance of the weaving product presented here. It is difficult to answer conclusively whether we are dealing in this case with an imported object or one produced in a local weaving workshop, although much points to the first option. Given the context of the find and the accompanying offerings, it can be assumed that the fabric belonged to a person of a higher social status. The local community’s custom of accumulating and then depositing imported items of quality into graves also makes such a hypothesis plausible. On the other hand, certain foreign patterns were adopted and creatively developed in local craft workshops of the Lusatian Culture. Most likely, involvement in long-distance trade routes allowed this society to achieve a high position in the aforementioned exchange. It was important to settle and control areas located in the basin of the upper Warta and Prosna rivers, i. e., on the southern borderlands of central Poland. It was here, through Silesia, that foreign patterns flowed in, which were then transmitted further along the Warta river basin in the northern direction, towards the “Lusatian interior”. The communication route created for the Baltic amber trade played an important role here. Finds of this raw material were recorded both in the Hallstatt circle, in areas of northern Italy, and present-day Slovenia.

Funerary vs. domestic vessels from the Hallstatt period. A study on ceramic vases from the Milejowice settlement and the Domasław cemetery

Clay vessels have a wide variety of functions in social activities in the Hallstatt period. In addition to food storage and processing, they were used for ritual purposes and as funerary vessels. The paper presents the results of archaeological and chromatographic studies of 31 vases from two different Hallstatt culture sites in lower Silesia (Poland). The investigations included vessels fragments from the Domasław cemetery and from the Milejowice settlement. The chromatographic analyses focused on fatty acids and biomarkers and made it possible to identify the most likely sources of substances they came into contact with during use. The c-means and hierarchical cluster analyses showed that grave vessels differed from settlement ceramics. Thus, conclusions on the diverse vessel functions could be made.

Examinations on small bronze items from the Hallstatt period burial ground at Mitterkirchen in Upper Austria

Abstract A partially destroyed burial ground from the Hallstatt period in the area of Mitterkirchen in Upper Austria was archaeologically investigated. The graves are dated to the Hallstatt C period corresponding to the 8th/7th century BC. Two triangular-headed nails and two lamellar “Buckel” (domed bronze plates) made of Sn-bronze were available for material investigations. One of each was subjected to metallographic examinations. The triangular-headed nail’s bronze contains about 15 wt. %Sn. The dendritic cast structure and the eutectoid phase Cu41Sn11 are clearly visible. What is noticeable is that a Cu41Sn11 layer formed in some areas of the surface. The lamellar Buckel’s microstructure is recrystallized and exhibits only a few deformation twins. Its bronze contains about 13 wt. %Sn. Hence, only very little Cu41Sn11 is present. Elongated Cu2S precipitates indicate that the initial sheet was manufactured by fine forging.

Rhyta and kernoi from the Domasław cemetery: The idea of offerings in the Hallstatt period

Unique ceremonial vessels such as rhyta, kernoi and pseudokernoi were discovered in a cemetery from the Early Iron Age in Domasław (Poland). The appearance of such vessels proves that the societies of the Hallstatt culture adopted cultural ideas, feasting and drinking practises and offerings from the Mediterranean world. GC-MS analyses were carried out on five vessels and compared with pottery from the Domasław cemetery (74 samples) and the nearby settlement of Milejowice (46 samples). The investigations show that the examined vessels probably contained ceremonial drinks and liquids used for offerings and libations during funeral ceremonies.

Dressing Situla people: prehistoric textile remains from the Dolenjski muzej Novo mesto

This contribution examines the Iron Age textiles (8th−4th century BCE) kept at the Dolenjski muzej in Novo mesto, Slovenia, with the aim of identifying their raw materials, technologies, functions and social significance and situating them in a wider European context. The primary textile weave identified is a wool twill, which is typical for the Hallstatt culture and Italic textile traditions. Wool quality analysis indicates a local raw material with different processing methods. Certain diachronic changes are identified in textile structural characteristics, which may be indicative of influences from other regions.

Evidence for dynastic succession among early Celtic elites in Central Europe

The early Iron Age (800 to 450 BCE) in France, Germany and Switzerland, known as the ‘West-Hallstattkreis’, stands out as featuring the earliest evidence for supra-regional organization north of the Alps. Often referred to as ‘early Celtic’, suggesting tentative connections to later cultural phenomena, its societal and population structure remain enigmatic. Here we present genomic and isotope data from 31 individuals from this context in southern Germany, dating between 616 and 200 BCE. We identify multiple biologically related groups spanning three elite burials as far as 100 km apart, supported by trans-regional individual mobility inferred from isotope data. These include a close biological relationship between two of the richest burial mounds of the Hallstatt culture. Bayesian modelling points to an avuncular relationship between the two individuals, which may suggest a practice of matrilineal dynastic succession in early Celtic elites. We show that their ancestry is shared on a broad geographic scale from Iberia throughout Central-Eastern Europe, undergoing a decline after the late Iron Age (450 BCE to ~50 CE).

Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of poorly stratified sites using malacological assemblages of archaeological features: A case study in Reims (NE France)

At the 53 ter rue de Louvois, in Reims, a number of human settlements dating from the Mesolithic period to the Early Middle Ages have been uncovered. Located on a footslope, these successive settlements are evidenced by archaeological features such as pits and ditches, which broadly appear at the same stratigraphic level. These features of different ages therefore provide valuable opportunities for sedimentary records in a context where natural stratification is poor. The examination of sedimentary archives sourced from archaeological features reveals distinct environmental phases interspersed with hiatuses stemming from the intermittent human habitation of the site. The initial phase provides insights into the early Holocene period, particularly during the First Mesolithic, illustrating the emergence of a pioneering semi-forest environment between around 9200 and 8200 cal. BC. Subsequently, Phase 2a, dated between 7050 and 6250 cal. BC, witnesses the expansion of deciduous forests during the Second Mesolithic. This expansion peaks during the Middle Neolithic (4300–3500 cal. BC), despite the construction of an enclosure in Phase 2b. The site is later cleared, at an unknown date between the end of the Middle Neolithic and the beginning of the Iron Age, probably during the late Bronze Age, between 1300 and 800 cal. BC. Phase 3 is thus characterised by the dominance of a dry grassland environment from the Hallstatt period through the early Middle Ages. This regional example illustrates the remarkable potential of malacological remains for reconstructing palaeoenvironments in poorly stratified contexts, as close as possible to human settlements and outside wetlands, the main sites for palynological investigations.

Hallstatt Period Rectangular Farmsteads in the Old Bavarian Loess Landscape: The Hascherkeller Site Revisited

Abstract In the occasionally lively debate about the social structure of the Central European Early Iron Age, the Herrenhof as the presumed seat of a high-status farmer now also plays a role. A rectangular farmstead of this type is the famous Hascherkeller site on the northern outskirts of Landshut. The first magnetic prospection ever conducted at such an archaeological structure was carried out here in 1978. The site became widely known for its distinctive complex appearance and the excavations undertaken there between 1978 and 1981 by Peter S. Wells, then assistant curator of European archaeology at the Peabody Museum of Harvard University. After four decades, an opportunity arose to resume excavations in areas not explored at the time and bring them to a conclusion. The most important result of the recent field work, which was completed in 2022, is the stratigraphic disentanglement of the numerous ditches. The loess terrace, most likely, was initially divided by a ditch running across the terrain. This separating landscape feature may have been contemporaneous with the palisaded farmstead on the eastern edge of the study area. Later, the two rectangular ditched enclosures were constructed, probably the eastern one first. In another, more recent phase, they were joined together by connecting ditches to form a larger settlement complex. Already during the investigation, it was revealed that the middle one of the once assumed three rectangular farmsteads had never existed. In addition, about 200 m further to the southwest, a similar double enclosure was discovered. Here, too, two rectangular enclosures were apparently joined by connecting ditches to form a larger settlement area in a more recent phase. About 5 km to the northeast, in the area of the hamlet Holzen not far from Altheim, a group of unconnected rectangular farmsteads dating from the Hallstatt period has recently been magnetically surveyed. These are characterised by a larger number of long, narrow pits indicating former house sites. The following remarks focus on the latest excavation results and the role of the type of habitation known as Herrenhof in the Early Iron Age settlement system.

Textiles from the Hallstatt period cemetery in Domasław, Wrocław district (Poland)

The article presents the remains of textiles excavated in Early Iron Age cremated graves in the cemetery in Domaslaw (Poland). The fragments were preserved in 62 burials, mainly richly furnished chamber graves, on jewellery, dress accessories, tools, and weapons. The analysis of the contexts of the finds reveals that urns were ‘dressed up’ and textile containers were used. The contextual analysis of the finds provides the basis for the conclusion that their use in funeral ceremonies had a ritualized form. The textiles in the graves confirm the adaptation of the customs of the European Hallstatt elites among the local community.

Hallstatt period hoard from Somló Hill

In January 2023, the National Institute of Archaeology of the Hungarian National Museum launched a new research programme, the aim of which has been to explore the Somló Hill (Somló-hegy) (Veszprém County), a site neglected by systematic field research focusing on Late Bronze Age (LBA) and Early Iron Age (EIA) inhabitation. Somló Hill was often considered one of the most important EIA power centres in the western part of the Carpathian Basin. However, this notion was based mainly on funerary evidence partially unearthed from nearby burial mounds. Beyond doubt, these burials are associated with a prominent elite in the Ha C Period that maintained long-ranging contacts with communities in the (north)west and south. By contrast, virtually nothing is known about either the extent of the EIA settlement both in geographical and chronological terms, its inner structure, or the activity of the community associated with it. In this paper, we aim to show some of the first results of the field research conducted in the last months on the hill and to introduce the first documented EIA hoard of Somló Hill. The typo-chronological evaluation of the hoard suggests that it was deposited in the Late Hallstatt Period, i.e. the Ha D2–D3 phases.

The Late Bronze Age Somló Hill and a new bronze hoard

In January 2023, the National Institute of Archaeology of the Hungarian National Museum launched a new research programme, the aim of which is to explore Somló Hill (Veszprém County), which has been neglected by systematic field research focusing on the Late Bronze Age (LBA) and Early Iron Age (EIA) inhabitation of the site. In the current phase of the research programme, new, preliminary results have been provided on the settlement history of the site, primarily through a systematic metal detector survey. Based on the discovered metal objects, the south-eastern plateau of Somló Hill was inhabited primarily between the Rei Br C and Ha B2 phases, and life on the settlement was probably continuous during the Hallstatt Culture in EIA. In addition to briefly introducing our preliminary results, one of the four hoards, Hoard II from Somló Hill, is introduced. This assemblage was found by Győző Csaba Budai, a volunteer, on the once-inhabited part of the south-eastern plateau. Owing to his discovery, the in situ hoard was documented in excavation. The hoard consists of a handful of objects belonging to a few people, such as a gouge, six Lovasberény-type bracelets, three bracelets with rolled ends, two lumps, and a pseudo-winged axe. The arrangement and grouping of the objects within the assemblage reflect deliberate selection and deposition. The typo-chronological analysis of the objects from the second hoard of Somló Hill suggests that the assemblage was deposited around the younger LBA phase of the settlement in the Ha B1–Ha B2 phases.

Western frontier of the Archaic Scythia: typo-chronology vs radiocarbon dating

One of the key issues in the chronology of Late Hallstatt period is the so-called Hallstatt plateau in the calibration curve extending the calibrated range of single dates to c. 800-400 BC. Analysis of the 14C dates of the ash-hill from the Chotyniec hillfort, indicate its dating to the time range, which does not exceed the interval of 780-469 BC. Typological analysis of the artefact collection allows us to date the ash-hill to the middle of the 7th – the first third of the 6th century BC (HaС2-HaD1). This dating corresponds to the Early Scythian timeand chronology of the Western Podillian group. The analysis of material culture allows us to indicate the immediate closeness of the Chotyniec agglomeration to the Western Podillian group.

Metallic Idiophones 800 BCE–800 CE in Central Europe: Function and Acoustic Influence

Our project is focused on metal sound objects of the Early Iron Age (Hallstatt Culture), the Romanperiod, and the period of the Avar Khanate in the Carpathian Basin (Early Middle Ages). The idiophonesoriginate from burial and settlement contexts. Our goal is to gain new information on their function, on tonal influence on ancient peoples’ daily lives, and their impact on society. This interdisciplinary project combines archaeological, metallurgical, acoustical, psychoacoustical, ethnomusicological, and psychological methods supported by experimental archaeology and handcraft experience, as well as by ancient written and iconographic sources. In this article we report on the status of our current results. We present three case studies, one for each period, and an acoustic and psychoacoustic overview of all currently investigated sound objects. Analyses of textile remains adhering to pellet bells complete this paper.

Szalacska and the Hallstatt period metal vessels from Western Hungary

Conventionally, Nagyberki-Szalacska is thought to be one of the most significant Early Iron Age sites in Western Hungary. Its importance is underlined by a few metal sheet fragments unearthed in 1941 during the looting of a tumulus of the Szalacska cemetery. Their rich decoration and the traces of the manufacturing process as well as other marks suggest that the metal sheet was used as a cover for a vessel made of some organic material. The decoration of the metal sheet provides new information regarding the cultural contacts between Nagyberki-Szalacska and the EIA centres of power in southeast Austria. In addition to the metal sheet fragments from Szalacska, a hitherto unpublished ensemble of bronze vessel fragments kept in the Hungarian National Museum highlights the need for a revision of the information about the EIA toureutics in western Hungary.

Trade, use, offer. The hoard of Bánov – “Skalky” (CZ)

Hoards disappeared from the regions of the “heart” of Hallstatt Europe. As for the peripheral areas, which include Moravia, the situation was different. The elite Hallstatt hoard from Bánov – “Skalky”, Uherské Hradiště District (CZ), dating to 575–550 BCE, proves that some regions did not abandon their “old Bronze-Age habits”. The hoard is among the most exclusive set of discoveries dating to the Hallstatt Period found in the Czech Republic. Its 1.500–2.000 pieces of amber beads represent the largest individual prehistoric set of amber in the Czech Republic. In the 6th century BCE, the eastern part of what is now the Czech Republic (Moravia) was the primary transit region of the Baltic amber to the Mediterranean. Extensive barter trade took place along the route of the Amber Road. Included in the Bánov hoard were exclusive women’s jewellery items which were evidently exchanged for amber. It is a set of dragon fibulae from contemporary Slovenia. This article describes the circumstances of the discovery, offers a detailed catalogue of the findings, introduces a chronological-typological analysis of the inventory and proposes the origin of the artefacts. An analysis of the composition and origin of glass by Scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS) and of amber by IR spectrometry was carried out in this study. Chemical analysis of glass determined the colouring agents and the composition, which points to the possible origin of the analysed items. While amber corresponds to the Baltic spectrum, analysis of the glass revealed surprising findings. Most of the beads do not correspond to the expected natron glass type but to an older mixed alkali type. Furthermore, an overview of the deposition of hoards in Moravia and the methodology of studying the deposition is presented. A model of long-distance trade on the Amber Road and its chronological background are also outlined. The authors discuss the social structure, elites, long-distance trade on trade routes north of the East Hallstatt culture region, and the assumed ceremony surrounding the creation of hoards.

Garment buttons from a Hallstatt period tumulus

Abstract A Hallstatt period burial mound (tumulus) in Schandorf, Burgenland, Austria, was opened and archaeologically investigated in 2021. Not only numerous pottery fragments, but also some garment buttons were found, one of which was provided for metallographic examinations, aiming at identifying the method of manufacture: soldering, riveting, casting? Prior to the metallographic examinations, micro-computed tomography (μm CT) was carried out at a resolution of 5 μm. The Figures show that large areas are oxidized. It was, however, found that metallic portions still existed. The overall appearance suggests investment casting as the manufacturing method. Analytical measurements revealed that the material is tin bronze. Despite severe corrosion, the metallographic sections still exhibit a clearly recognizable cast structure. There are presumably two types of corrosion: first, high temperature corrosion, which resulted in the formation of bronze oxides in the grain boundary areas during the cremation, and, second, corrosion in an aqueous environment, during which malachite formed. So far, no comparable studies can be found in the literature.

Analysis of Pigments from Decorated Antler or Bone Artifacts from the Early Iron Age Princely Burial Mounds in Jalžabet (NW Croatia)

During the Early Iron Age in Europe (EIA), the phenomenon of the Hallstatt culture enveloped a large portion of the European continent. Between the Atlantic Ocean and the River Danube, cultural groups can be roughly divided into two major regions: the Western and the Eastern Hallstatt circle. EIA finds made from organic material decorated with pigments are usually well-preserved only in specific conditions. A good example is the coloured textile found in the salt mines of the eponymous site Hallstatt (AT). Other examples are Scythian finds north and east of the Black Sea, far outside the Hallstatt culture area. This paper presents the results of the analysis of decorated artifacts made from bone or antlers from Jalžabet (NW Croatia). The artifacts were found in two princely burial mounds with incinerated remains: burial mound 1 (Gomila) and burial mound 2. The funerary monuments belong to the Eastern Hallstatt culture and date back to the middle of the 6th century BC, i.e., the end of the Ha D1 period. A group of scientists from Croatia and abroad performed several series of analyses on the selected bone or antler artifacts. The motifs on the artifacts were made by incisions and were filled with black pigment, and there are faint traces of red pigment on the surface. With the help of colourant analysis performed in Brussels and Zagreb (SEM-EDX, MRS, FT-IR), zooarchaeological taxonomic identification, and archaeological determination of a selected group of findings from Jalžabet, we have tried to answer several major questions. The most important question being: are the traces of pigments on artefacts deliberate decoration? If so, can we determine the composition of the paint? What kind of raw materials were used for the production of the artifacts? These questions are important because these kinds of EIA finds are rare and even more rarely analysed. New data would considerably expand our knowledge about the funeral rites of the most prominent members of the Hallstatt nobility in the Drava River valley and Central Europe. Taxonomically, the raw material from which the finds were made was identified to be antlers, probably from red deer (Cervus elaphus). Using methods for colourant analysis, we have successfully proven deliberate application of black paint based on carbon black as a pigment, probably in combination with terpenoid resin. Until now, this composition was only known from much later, Roman-period finds. Also, it was confirmed that the black paint on the artifacts from both burial mounds in Jalžabet is of the same composition. The red pigment on the finds has been identified as hematite. It is highly probable that the red surfaces were deliberate, painted decoration. The probability of extracting the raw material needed for the production of the red paint in the Jalžabet micro-region was also established and requires further research (bog iron ore). The archaeological analysis of the finds supports the idea of the use of various types of decorated plates as inlays, probably on furniture or other luxury everyday items. Smaller finds could have been used as utilitarian objects, parts of attire, and jewellery.

Origins of Cannabis sativa in Ireland and the Concept of Celtic Hemp: An Interdisciplinary Review.

Introduction: Ireland's agriculture has been shaped by Celts, Romano-British Christians, Norse-Vikings, Anglo-Normans, and subsequent migrants. Who introduced hemp (Cannabis sativa) to Hibernia? We addressed this question using historical linguistics, fossil pollen studies (FPSs), archaeological data, and written records. Methods: Data gathering utilized digital resources coupled with citation tracking. Linguistic methods separated cognates (words with shared etymological origins) from loanwords (borrowed from other languages). Cannabis pollen in FPSs was identified using the "ecological proxy" method. Archaeological reports were ranked on a "robustness" scale. Results: Words for "hemp" in Celtic languages are loanwords, not cognates. The Irish word cnáib is first attested in texts written 1060 and 1127-1134 CE. Old Breton coarcholion, corrected to coarch, is attested in a text from the 9th century. Pollen consistent with cultivated Cannabis appears in the Middle Ages, ca. 700 CE, at sites in the vicinity of monasteries. Archaeological finds (hemp seeds and fiber) date to later Norse-Viking and Anglo-Norman sites. Discussion: People of the Hallstatt Culture in Central Europe have long been considered speakers of the "Proto-Celtic" language. The lack of "hemp" cognates means a Proto-Celtic word cannot be reconstructed, which implies that Hallstatt people (with robust archaeological evidence of hemp) did not speak Proto-Celtic. Cnáib is absent in Old Irish glossaries, epics, and mythologies (600-900 CE). FPS data suggest that the onset of hemp cultivation correlated-chronologically and spatially-with the founding of Romano-British monasteries. Irish cnáib was likely borrowed from Clerical Latin canapis or canabus.

Ceramika malowana z wczesnej epoki żelaza vs. nowożytna ceramika biała. Rozważania o magii i o „odczarowaniu świata”

The article contrasts two chronologically distinct groups of artifacts: painted ceramics from the Hallstatt period and the so-called white ceramics, produced until the end of modernity. They are related by means of the technique of covering a bright surface with colorful patterns and the stylistic similarity of certain geometric motifs. However, the ideas behind creating these pictorial representations were completely different. In the article, painted vessels from the Hallstatt period and modernity will be the starting point for detailed studies on magical and rational thinking about the world. It was in the Renaissance that, according to the concept of the sociologist and philosopher Max Weber (1864‒1920), a “disenchantment of the world”, took place ‒ e.g. the departure from the magical understanding of reality. Early Iron Age and Modernity ceramics will illustrate this process.