Halite Brine Research Articles

Determining the source and mechanism of river salinity: An integrated regional study

Study regionZohreh River Basin, Southwest Iran Study focusThe salinity of Zohreh River sharply increases in three salinity zones (SZs) along the river named SZ1, SZ2 (the focus of this study), and SZ3. Determining the salinity sources and salinization mechanism using an integrated approach including geological, hydrochemical, isotopic, geophysical, river sinuosity and hydrocarbon analysis are the main objectives of this study. The study focuses on the combination of evidence of regional-scale (i.e., river sinuosity and seismic data) and small-scale (i.e., drilling core analysis). New hydrologic insights for the regionAmong several known sources of river salinity, it was found that the water quality of the Zohreh River is mainly threatened by the salt-bearing Gachsaran Formation and oil-field brine. It is concluded that halite brine and oil-field brine simultaneously cause the salinization in SZ2, and their contributions were delineated to be 95% and 5%, respectively. The lack of reliable geological evidence to support halite dissolution in surficial layers by circulating waters suggests the possibility of a deep source of halite brine in SZ2. The results revealed that deep halite brine of the salt layers of Gachsaran Formation is mainly responsible for the salinization of SZ2. The mechanism of deep brine penetration to the river through the hidden fault failures detected by the combination of river sinuosity analysis and geophysical data for the first time.

Molecular acclimation of Halobacterium salinarum to halite brine inclusions.

Halophilic microorganisms have long been known to survive within the brine inclusions of salt crystals, as evidenced by the change in color for salt crystals containing pigmented halophiles. However, the molecular mechanisms allowing this survival has remained an open question for decades. While protocols for the surface sterilization of halite (NaCl) have enabled isolation of cells and DNA from within halite brine inclusions, "-omics" based approaches have faced two main technical challenges: (1) removal of all contaminating organic biomolecules (including proteins) from halite surfaces, and (2) performing selective biomolecule extractions directly from cells contained within halite brine inclusions with sufficient speed to avoid modifications in gene expression during extraction. In this study, we tested different methods to resolve these two technical challenges. Following this method development, we then applied the optimized methods to perform the first examination of the early acclimation of a model haloarchaeon (Halobacterium salinarum NRC-1) to halite brine inclusions. Examinations of the proteome of Halobacterium cells two months post-evaporation revealed a high degree of similarity with stationary phase liquid cultures, but with a sharp down-regulation of ribosomal proteins. While proteins for central metabolism were part of the shared proteome between liquid cultures and halite brine inclusions, proteins involved in cell mobility (archaellum, gas vesicles) were either absent or less abundant in halite samples. Proteins unique to cells within brine inclusions included transporters, suggesting modified interactions between cells and the surrounding brine inclusion microenvironment. The methods and hypotheses presented here enable future studies of the survival of halophiles in both culture model and natural halite systems.

Influence of Climate and Tectonics on the Crystallization of Carnallite and Related Salts in the Congolese Atlantic Basin during the Lower Cretaceous, Republic of Congo

Lithological, petrographic, and morphoscopic studies were conducted on cuttings and cores from three boreholes drilled in the Loemé salt, Kanga site, Republic of the Congo, to determine 1) the preferential conditions for crystallization of carnallite and associated salts and 2) to reconstruct paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic conditions at the time of sedimentation. Sequential analysis of logs, sedimentary structures, carnallitite facies and associated salts concluded to the existence of a potassic carnallitite lagoon basin with low water cover, on a very wide and extensive plateau, affected by coastal waves and swells resulting from successive collapses. This basin evolved in two phases: confined and then open. The regular stratifications of halite, the rhythmicity of the halite-carnallitite elementary sequences are characteristic of salts that precipitated in relatively stable brines. These salts are therefore tectonosedimentary. The brecciated facies of the carnallitites sometimes associated with tachyhydrite result from the evolution of these deposits into salt crusts reworked by the surges into subaquatic allochemical gravelly cords under water. These crusts mark stages of partial and complete drying of the basin in a very hot and arid climate. Prolonged exposure of halite brines as well as their homogenization by surges accelerated evaporation and their abrupt evolution into carnallite brines obstructing the fossilization of sylvite. The precipitation of tachyhydrite marks the final stage of the successive complete drying of the basin.

Formation of Rotliegend Ca-Cl brines in the North German Basin compared to analogues in the geological record

The formation of terrestrial Ca-Cl brines is controlled by two major processes: chemical reactions between halite brines and igneous and metamorphic rocks and/or their debris in sedimentary basins, and the abstraction of H2O by evaporation, freezing or formation of hydrous minerals. Albitization dominates in environments of low H2O activity, i.e., halite saturated systems. Chloritization, serpentinization and formation of smectites seems to be related to less saline systems, i.e., enhanced water activity.The Rotliegend brines of the North German Basin evolved by interaction of infiltrating halite brines with volcanic debris of the Permian acid volcanic rocks by albitization and chloritization of plagioclase. At present their temperatures are between 130 and 150°C at 3000–4000m depth. Although they developed in a different environment they chemically and isotopically resemble the basinal brines from the Mississippi Salt Dome basin or even the deep brines from the Red Sea. All these brines have in common that halite brines interacted with plagioclase (An+SiO2+2Na+⇔2Alb+Ca2+) or possibly with clay minerals (Ca-clay+2Na+⇔Na2-clay+Ca2+) at enhanced temperatures. The trends of stable isotopes show slopes in the δD-δ18O diagram which are typical for hydrothermal reactions of evaporation brines with rock or sediments. The genesis of Rotliegend brines differ from Ca-Cl brines in the Canadian Shield, Siberian Platform, the Dry Valleys in Antarctica and even the local brines from the Chilean salars and the Californian Bristol Dry Lake. The Antarctic Dry Valley brines seem to be dominated by melting of ice-cements of their permafrost sections. The Ca-Cl brines of springs in the Chilean salars and the Bristol Dry Lake ascend due to thermal convection along tectonic faults. Although the Canadian Shield brines chemically resemble those of the Siberian Platform their stable isotope fractionation suggest that they developed by different processes of water abstraction. Exotic stable isotope values in brines are gained by freezing or ultrafiltration processes in the precursor sediments of the present crystalline rocks of the Canadian Shield and by small volume ratios of liquids and metamorphic rocks such as of KTB/VB.

Identification of Carotenoids in Ancient Salt from Death Valley, Saline Valley, and Searles Lake, California, Using Laser Raman Spectroscopy

Carotenoids are common components of many photosynthetic organisms and are well known from the red waters of hypersaline ecosystems where they are produced by halophilic algae and prokaryotes. They are also of great interest as biomarkers in extraterrestrial samples. Few laser Raman spectroscopy studies have examined ancient field samples, where pigments and microscopic life are less defined. Here, we have identified carotenoids in ancient halite brine inclusions, 9 ka to 1.44 Ma in age, from borehole cores taken from Death Valley, Saline Valley, and Searles Lake, California, for the first time with laser Raman spectroscopy. Carotenoids occurred in fluid inclusions as colorless to red-brown amorphous and crystalline masses associated with spheroidal algal cells similar in appearance to the common halophilic alga Dunaliella. Spectra from carotenoid standards, including β-carotene, lycopene, and lutein, were compared to microscopically targeted carotenoids in fluid inclusions. Carotenoids produced characteristic bands in the Raman spectrum, 1000-1020 cm⁻¹ (v₃), 1150-1170 cm⁻¹ (v₂), and 1500-1550 cm⁻¹ (v₁), when exposed to visible laser excitation. Laser Raman analyses confirmed the presence of carotenoids with these characteristic peaks in ancient halite. A number of band sets were repeated at various depths (ages), which suggests the stability of this class of organic molecules. Carotenoids appear well preserved in ancient salt, which supports other observations, for example, preserved DNA and live cells, that fluid inclusions in buried halite deposits preserve intact halophilic microbial ecosystems. This work demonstrates the value of laser Raman spectroscopy and carotenoids in extraterrestrial exploration for remnants of microbial life.

10Be dating of Neogene halite

Direct radioactive dating of ancient halite formations is difficult because this mineral typically lacks conventionally datable material. We describe an attempt to date Neogene halite using the cosmogenic isotope 10Be (T1/2=1.39Ma). We dated marine-derived salt deposits from the Sedom and Amora (The Hebrew forms of Sodom and Gomorrah) Formations, Dead Sea basin, Israel. To verify whether Be is incorporated into marine halite we measured the stable isotope 9Be, 7Be (the short lived “cosmogenic brother” of 10Be having T1/2=53.3d), and 10Be in evaporation pans of sea-salt production plants. The data suggest that seawater beryllium is incorporated into the halite with a halite–brine distribution coefficient, (KD) of about unity. A 10Be/9Be decay curve constructed for Sedom Formation halite yielded an age that lies in the range of ∼2–6Ma. The 10Be decay curve constructed for Sedom Formation halite yielded an age that lies in the range of 3–5Ma. This age is consistent with previous estimates of the Sedom Formation age. Furthermore, this age lies in the same range of 10Be in situ ages obtained on the lacustrine Erq El Ahmer Formation located in the northern Jordan Valley. This may imply that during the Mid Pliocene the Sedom Lagoon, the water-body that deposited the Sedom Formation, might have been already disconnected from the open sea.

Major, minor element chemistry and oxygen and hydrogen isotopic compositions of Marun oil‐field brines, SW Iran: Source history and economic potential

AbstractCation and anion concentrations and oxygen and hydrogen isotopic ratios of brines in the Asmari Formation (Oligocene–early Miocene) from the Marun oil field of southwest Iran were measured to identify the origin of these brines (e.g. salt dissolution vs. seawater evaporation) as well as the involvement of water–rock reaction processes in their evolution. Marun brines are characterized by having higher concentrations of calcium (11 000–20 000 mg/L), chlorine (120 000–160 000 mg/L) and bromide (600–1000 mg/L) compared to modern seawater. Samples are also enriched in 18O relative to seawater, fall to the right of the Global Meteoric Water Line and local rain water, and plot close to the halite brine trajectory on the δD versus δ18O diagram. Geochemical characteristics of Marun brines are inconsistent with a meteoric origin, but instead correspond to residual evaporated seawater modified by water–rock interaction, most significantly dolomitization. In addition, anhydrite precipitation or sulphate reduction appears to be important in chemical modification of the Marun brines, as indicated by lower sulphate contents relative to evaporated seawater. Extensive dolomitization, the presence of anhydrite nodules and high salinity fluid inclusions in the upper parts of the Asmari Formation fit a model whereby the Marun brines likely originated from the seepage reflux of concentrated seawater during the deposition of the overlying Gachsaran Formation evaporites in the Miocene. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Origin of halite brine in the Onondaga Trough near Syracuse, New York State, USA: modeling geochemistry and variable-density flow

Halite brine (saturation ranging from 45 to 80%) lies within glacial sediments that fill the Onondaga Trough, a bedrock valley deepened by Pleistocene glaciation near Syracuse, New York State, USA. The most concentrated brine occupies the northern end of the trough, about 10 km downgradient of the northern limit of halite beds in the Silurian Salina Group, the assumed source of salt. The chemical composition of the brine and its radiocarbon age suggest that the brine originally formed about 16,700 years ago through dissolution of halite by glacial melt water and later mixed with saline bedrock water. Two hypotheses regarding the formation of the brine pool were tested through variable-density flow simulations using SEAWAT. Simulation results supported the first hypothesis that the brine pool was derived from a source in the glacial sediments and then migrated to its current position, where it has persisted for over 16,000 years. A second hypothesis that the brine pool formed through steady accumulation of brine from upward flow of a source in the underlying bedrock was not supported by simulation results, because the simulated age distribution was much younger than the age estimated from geochemical modeling.

Sequence stratigraphy of a carbonate‐evaporite succession (Zechstein 1, Hessian Basin, Germany)

AbstractThe evaporitic Hessian Zechstein Basin is a sub‐basin of the Southern Zechstein Basin, situated at its southern margin. Twelve facies groups were identified in the Zechstein Limestone and Lower Werra Anhydrite in order to better understand the sequence‐stratigraphic evolution of this sub‐basin, which contains economically important potassium salts. Four different paleogeographic depositional areas were recognized based on the regional distribution of facies. Siliciclastic‐carbonate, carbonate, carbonate‐evaporite and evaporite shallowing‐upward successions are developed. These allow the establishment of parasequences and sequences, as well as correlation throughout the Hessian Basin and into the Southern Zechstein Basin. Two depositional sequences are distinguished, Zechstein sequence 1 and Zechstein sequence 2. The former comprises the succession from the Variscan basement up to the lowermost part of the Werra Anhydrite, including the Kupferschiefer as part of the transgressive systems tract. The highstand systems tract is defined by the Zechstein Limestone, in which two parasequences are developed. In large parts of the Hessian Basin, Zechstein sequence 1 is capped by a karstic, subaerial exposure surface, interpreted as recording a type‐1 sequence boundary that formed during a distinct brine level fall. Low‐lying central areas (Central Hessian Sub‐basin, Werra Sub‐basin), however, were not exposed and show a correlative conformity. Topography was minimal at the end of sequence 1. Widely developed perilittoral, sabkha and salina shallowing‐upward successions indicate a renewed rise of brine level (interpreted as a transgressive systems tract), because of inflow of preconcentrated brines from the Southern Zechstein Basin to the north. This marks the initiation of Zechstein sequence 2, which comprises most of the Lower Werra Anhydrite. In the Central Hessian Sub‐basin, situated proximal to the brine inflow and on the ridges within the Hessian Basin, physico‐chemical conditions were well suited for sulphate precipitation to form a thick cyclic succession. It consists of four parasequences that completely filled the increased accommodation space. In contrast, only minor sulphate accumulation occurred in the Werra Sub‐basin, situated further southwards and distal to the inflow. As a result of substantially different sulphate precipitation rates during increased accommodation, water depth in the region became more variable. The Werra Sub‐basin, characterized by very low sedimentation rates, became increasingly deeper through time, trapping dense halite brines and precipitating rock salt deposits (Werra Halite). This ‘self‐organization’ model for an evaporitic basin, in which depositional relief evolves with sedimentation and relief is filled by evaporite thereafter, contradicts earlier interpretations, that call upon the existence of a tectonic depression in the Werra area, which controlled sedimentation from the beginning of the Zechstein.

Mixing of halite brines with meteoric water in the Clarke Lake gas field, Canada

Formation water samples from the Middle Devonian Slave Point Formation in the subsurface of northeastern British Columbia, Canada, were collected from producing gas wells in the Clarke Lake field. Stable and Sr-isotope data, ionic compositions, and circumstantial evidence show that (i) a “halite brine” end member originated during the Late Devonian and was retained in the Slave Point Formation; (ii) meteoric water recharged from the Rocky Mountains after the Laramide Orogeny in the southwest, flowed through the Devonian aquifer system northeastward, and mixed with the halite brine in the Clarke Lake region. Trapping of hydrocarbons was controlled mainly by the configuration of the Slave Point platform margin relative to the structural tilt, which provided closure in many locations. The regional flow pattern of the meteoric water did not change the trap locations, as it was directed structurally updip, but it probably modified trap capacity in several pools.