Haemaphysalis Spinigera Research Articles

Influence of environmental factors on tick diversity and abundance in different animal resting habitats in forest areas of the south Western Ghats.

Most tick-borne disease causing pathogens originate in wildlife and are zoonotic in nature. A key to protecting human and animal health is to understand the biology and ecology of tick establishment. The tick distribution in wild animal habitats has been attributed to multiple environmental factors, and the studies on this topic are limited. Therefore, the objective of the study is to understand the influence of environmental factors on tick diversity and abundance in wild animal resting habitats. The study was carried out in 21 different animal resting habitats in the forest areas of Wayanad district, and they were divided into three groups based on the presence or absence of selected environmental parameters. A total of 10,849 ticks with 12 species belonging to five genera were collected. Regardless of the type of habitats, Haemaphysalis spinigera (59.52%) and Haemaphysalis turturis (33.20%) were the dominant species. Tick abundance showed greater variability between types of habitats ranging from 1.23 to 28.5. The greatest diversity and abundance were found in the group one. The group 3 had greater diversity and less abundance than the group 2. Both Simpson's diversity index and Shannon's diversity index were high for groups 2. Substantial variation in diversity and abundance of ticks occurred in different groups based on different environmental factors. The dominance of ticks of the genus Haemaphysalis a primary vector of Kyasanur Forest Disease highlights the need to carry out various control strategies to reduce the tick population.

Structural Modifications Introduced by NS2B Cofactor Binding to the NS3 Protease of the Kyasanur Forest Disease Virus

Kyasanur Forest Disease virus (KFDV), a neglected human pathogenic virus, is a Flavivirus that causes severe hemorrhagic fever in humans. KFDV is transmitted to humans by the bite of the hard tick (Haemaphysalis spinigera), which acts as a reservoir of KFDV. The recent expansion of the endemic area of KFDV is of concern and requires the development of new preventive measures against KFDV. Currently, there is no antiviral therapy against KFDV, and the existing vaccine has limited efficacy. To develop a new antiviral therapy against KFDV, we focused on the nonstructural proteins NS2B and NS3 of KFDV, which are responsible for serine protease activity. Viral proteases have shown to be suitable therapeutic targets in the development of antiviral drugs against many diseases. However, success has been limited in flaviviruses, mainly because of the important features of the active site, which is flat and highly charged. In this context, the present study focuses on the dynamics of NS2B and NS3 to identify potential allosteric sites in the NS2B/NS3 protease of KDFV. To our knowledge, there are no reports on the dynamics of NS2B and NS3 in KFDV, and the crystal structure of the NS2B/NS3 protease of KFDV has not yet been solved. Overall, we created the structure of the NS2B/NS3 protease of KFDV using AlphaFold and performed molecular dynamics simulations with and without NS2B cofactor to investigate structural rearrangements due to cofactor binding and to identify alternative allosteric sites. The identified allosteric site is promising due to its geometric and physicochemical properties and druggability and can be used for new drug development. The applicability of the proposed allosteric binding sites was verified for the best-hit molecules from the virtual screening and MD simulations.

Tick (Acari: Ixodoidea) fauna and zoogeographic division of Jiangxi Province, China

Tick fauna and zoogeographic distribution of Jiangxi Province remain largely unknown due to the lack of data on distribution, occurrence, and host associations of ticks. Considering this, we collected 1,817 individual samples from natural hosts, humans, and vegetation in 18 counties/districts throughout Jiangxi Province, China, from 2015 to 2021. These 1,817 individuals were found to 13 tick species, 4 genera, and 1 family. In addition, the tick sample data from 8 sampling localities (counties and districts) reported in previous studies were also included in our data. A total of 4,021 individuals, including our sample collection and the previously reported data, were assigned to at least 18 species, 6 genera, and 2 families. One newly recorded species Dermacentor sp. (near D. steini Schulze) was found; three misidentified species (Ixodes acuminatus, Haemaphysalis spinigera, and Haemaphysalis verticalis) reported previously were deleted; and one misidentified species Dermacentor auratus Supino was revised as Dermacentor steini Schulze. In addition, we divided the tick fauna in Jiangxi Province into 5 zoogeographic areas and assigned the 18 tick species collected from 26 localities to these 5 zoogeographic areas. To summarize, our findings provide valuable information on the distribution, tick-host associations, and zoogeographic division of ticks in Jiangxi Province, China. Their molecular characterizations, phylogenetic relationships, and tick-borne pathogens that they may transmit should be further explored.

Identification of bio-climatic determinants and potential risk areas for Kyasanur forest disease in Southern India using MaxEnt modelling approach

BackgroundKyasanur forest disease (KFD), known as monkey fever, was for the first time reported in 1957 from the Shivamogga district of Karnataka. But since 2011, it has been spreading to the neighbouring state of Kerala, Goa, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu. The disease is transmitted to humans, monkeys and by the infected bite of ticks Haemaphysalis spinigera. It is known that deforestation and ecological changes are the main reasons for KFD emergence, but the bio-climatic understanding and emerging pathways remain unknown.MethodsThe present study aims to understand the bio-climatic determinants of distribution of tick vector of KFD in southern India using the Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model. The analysis was done using 34 locations of Haemaphysalis spinigera occurrence and nineteen bio-climatic variables from WorldClim. Climatic variables contribution was assessed using the Jackknife test and mean AUC 0.859, indicating the model performs with very high accuracy.ResultsMost influential variables affecting the spatial distribution of Haemaphysalis spinigera were the average temperature of the warmest quarter (bio10, contributed 32.5%), average diurnal temperature range (bio2, contributed 21%), precipitation of wettest period (bio13, contributed 17.6%), and annual precipitation (bio12, contributed 11.1%). The highest probability of Haemaphysalis spinigera presence was found when the mean warmest quarter temperature ranged between 25.4 and 30 °C. The risk of availability of the tick increased noticeably when the mean diurnal temperature ranged between 8 and 10 °C. The tick also preferred habitat having an annual mean temperature (bio1) between 23 and 26.2 °C, mean temperature of the driest quarter (bio9) between 20 and 28 °C, and mean temperature of the wettest quarter (bio8) between 22.5 and 25 °C.ConclusionsThe results have established the relationship between bioclimatic variables and KFD tick distribution and mapped the potential areas for KFD in adjacent areas wherein surveillance for the disease is warranted for early preparedness before the occurrence of outbreaks etc. The modelling approach helps link bio-climatic variables with the present and predicted distribution of Haemaphysalis spinigera tick.

Identification, Distribution, and Habitat Suitability Models of Ixodid Tick Species in Cattle in Eastern Bhutan.

Tick infestation is the most reported parasitological problem in cattle in Bhutan. In May and June 2019, we collected ticks from 240 cattle in two districts of Eastern Bhutan. Tick presence, diversity, and infestation prevalence were examined by morphological identification of 3600 live adult ticks. The relationships between cattle, geographic factors, and infestation prevalence were assessed using logistic regression analyses. Habitat suitability for the tick species identified was determined using MaxEnt. Four genera and six species of ticks were found. These were Rhipicephalus microplus (Canestrini) (70.2% (95% confidence interval (CI): 68.7–71.7)), Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides Supino (18.8% (95% CI: 17.5–20.1)), Haemaphysalis bispinosa Neumann (8.2% (95% CI: 7.3–9.1)), Haemaphysalis spinigera Neumann (2.5% (95% CI: 2–3)), Amblyomma testudinarium Koch (0.19% (95% CI: 0.07–0.4)), and a single unidentified Ixodes sp. Logistic regression indicated that the variables associated with infestation were: longitude and cattle age for R. microplus; latitude for R. haemaphysaloides; and altitude and cattle breed for H. bispinosa and H. spinigera. MaxEnt models showed land cover to be an important predictor for the occurrence of all tick species examined. These findings provide information that can be used to initiate and plan enhanced tick surveillance and subsequent prevention and control programs for ticks and tick-borne diseases in cattle in Bhutan.

Species composition of hard ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) on domestic animals and their public health importance in Tamil Nadu, South India

This study was carried out in Madurai district, Tamil Nadu State, South India. Ticks were collected from cows, dogs, goats, cats, and fowls. The overall percentage of tick infestation in these domestic animals was 21.90%. The following ticks were identified: Amblyomma integrum, Haemaphysalis bispinosa, Haemaphysalis paraturturis, Haemaphysalis turturis, Haemaphysalis intermedia, Haemaphysalis spinigera, Hyalomma anatolicum, Hyalomma brevipunctata, Hyalomma kumari, Rhipicephalus turanicus, Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides and Rhipicephalus sanguineus. The predominant species recorded from these areas is R. sanguineus (27.03%) followed by both R (B.) microplus (24.12%) and R. (B.) decoloratus (18.82%). The maximum tick infestation rate was recorded in animals from rural areas (25.67%), followed by semi-urban (21.66%) and urban (16.05%) areas. This study proved the predominance of hard ticks as parasites on domestic animals and will help the public health personnel to understand the ground-level situation and to take up necessary control measures to prevent tick-borne diseases.

The species distribution of ticks & the prevalence of Kyasanur forest disease virus in questing nymphal ticks from Western Ghats of Kerala, South India.

Background & objectives:Kyasanur forest disease (KFD) is a zoonotic tick-borne disease across the Western Ghats of India. With the discovery of a cluster of human KFD cases in the Wayanad district of Kerala, the present study was focused on detecting KFD virus (KFDV) in tick populations. To manage this disease, it is necessary to understand the diversity of the tick species and factors influencing the distribution, abundance and prevalence of infected ticks in Wayanad district.Methods:Surveys were conducted from November 2016 to May 2018 in four forest ranges of Wayanad district. Ticks were collected by the dragging method and were identified to species level and assayed for virus detection using real-time polymerase chain reaction.Results:A total of 25,169 ticks were collected from 64 sites. Of the identified species, Haemaphysalis spinigera was the most abundant (56.64%), followed by H. turturis 9047 (35.94%), H. bispinosa 999 (3.96%), Amblyomma integrum 691 (2.74%), H. kyasanurensis (0.55%), Rhipicephalus sanguineus (0.08%), Hyalomma marginatum (0.02%), H. cuspidata (0.01%), R.microplus (0.01%) and Dermacentor auratus (0.003%). The nymphal stage was predominant from December to February having peak activity in January. A total of 572 pools were screened for the presence of KFDV, of which 21 pools were positive. The infection rates in H. spinigera and H. turturis tick were 2.62 and 1.04 per cent, respectively.Interpretation & conclusions:The circulation of KFDV was detected and its correlation with the prevalence in ticks near the fragmented forest and teak plantation areas of Wayanad district. Residents and visitors of these regions may become vulnerable to tick bites and to an increased risk of KFD as the distribution of established, infected tick populations continues to expand.

Kyasanur forest disease: a state-of-the-art review.

Kyasanur forest disease (KFD) virus is a flavivirus that can be transmitted to humans from monkeys or other mammals through hard ticks (Haemaphysalis spinigera). The disease is endemic to 16 districts in 5 states of Southern India and is reported in the dry season, most commonly in humans travelling to the forests in these areas. The aim of this systematic review is to raise awareness of the clinical and laboratory manifestation of KFD among physicians and travel medicine practitioners. A total of 153 articles were screened of which 16 articles that met the inclusion and exclusion criteria were included for qualitative analysis. KFD is an acute haemorrhagic fever with a biphasic component in some individuals. The second phase is usually marked by neurological symptoms. Leucopoenia, thrombocytopenia and elevated transaminases are the hallmarks of the first phase of KFD. The diagnostic modality of choice in the first few days of illness is polymerase chain reaction assay, whereas serology is used in the late phase. In the absence of a specific antiviral treatment, the clinical management of patients is limited to supportive care. Avoidance of exposure and vaccination is recommended to prevent this infection.

Kyasanur Forest Disease: Vector Surveillance and its Control

Kyasanaur Forest Disease (KFD) is a tick-borne viral hemorrhagic fever caused by KFD Virus (KFDV), a member of the virus family Flaviviridae (Genus: Flavivirus). KFD was first recognized as a febrile illness in Shimoga district of Karnataka state, India in 1957. It is also called as monkey fever. KFDV gets transmitted by the bite infective ticks Haemaphysalis spp., especially at its nymphal stage. There is wide range of hosts including human, tick species, rodents (shrews, forest rats) monkeys (black faced langurs and red faced bonnet monkeys), bats, squirrels, ground dwelling birds and porcupines and domestic ruminants. Rodents are the best maintenance hosts (short generation time). In KFD, Human act as dead end host. They do not develop adequate viremia to infect the ticks. Amplification of virus occurs in Monkeys. Domestic ruminants maintain the infected tick population for long time. Trans-stadial transmission in ticks is common, but trans-ovarial transmission is absent except in Ixodes petaurisae. About sixteen species of ticks are known to be involved in transmission. Ten species carry natural infection. Haemaphysalis spinigera and Haemaphysalis turturis are the two major vector playing role in KFD transmission. Other species of Haemaphysalis involved in transmission of KFDV are H. aculeata, H. bispinosa, H. cuspidata, H. kyasanurinsis and H. minuta, H. kinneari and H. wellingtoni. An attempt has been made in this manuscript to discuss the vector surveillance in KFD transmission and vector control options available at present.

Spatial distribution of Haemaphysalis species ticks and human Kyasanur Forest Disease cases along the Western Ghats of India, 2017-2018.

Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD) is a viral haemorrhagic fever, transmitted to humans and other hosts by a tick vector of genus Haemaphysalis. It affects 400-500 people annually in the Western Ghats region of India through spring to summer season. To understand the species composition, distribution, and abundance of Haemaphysalis ticks in endemic taluks (sub-districts) of India, a surveillance for ticks was conducted between October 2017 and January 2018. In total 105 sites were selected based on grid sampling from five taluks representing five KFD endemic states in south India. A sum of 8373 ticks were collected by using standard flagging method. The study showed a wide distribution of host seeking tick species among the selected taluks, wherein Haemaphysalis spinigera was predominant in 3/5 taluks, Haemaphysalis bispinosa in 1/5 taluks, and both the species in 1/5 taluks. Further, the H. spinigera abundance was categorised and compared with the incidence of human cases during the same season. The grids with very high and high H. spinigera abundance had 70% of the 205 human cases reported. This method of tick surveillance could be efficiently used as a standard model for KFD transmission risk assessment and prediction of impending outbreaks.

Distribution and prevalence of ticks on livestock population in endemic area of Kyasanur forest disease in Western Ghats of Kerala, South India.

Tick borne zoonotic diseases are one of the major emerging threats to live stock and public health in India, especially in Western Ghats of south India. Since livestock and wild animals share habitats and grasslands, it is important to know the species composition of major tick parasitism on live stock as well as their geographical distribution for effective control of tick and tick borne diseases. This study provides basic knowledge that is necessary to initiate Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD) prevention programs in these areas. Ticks were sampled from Wayanad districts of Kerala from domestic animals and identified morphologically. A total of 195 cattle searched, in which 168 (86.15%) cattle were infested with ticks and a total of 3633 ticks comprising three genera and seven species were collected, Rhipicephalus microplus (52.71%) was prevalent species followed by Haemaphysalis bispinosa (16.9%), Rhipicephalus decoloratus (15.77%), Haemaphysalis turturis (11.42%), Rhipicephalus sanguineus (1.32%), Amblyomma integrum (1.15%) and Haemaphysalis spinigera (0.71%) were identified based on their morphological characters. As R. microplus was the prevalent species, the risk of transmission of babesiosis and anaplasmosis to cattle increases and the presence of Haemaphysalis sp. point out the risk of KFD in among the tribal colony people and it can be reduced by applying with acaricides on domestic animals.

Ixodid Tick Vectors of Wild Mammals and Reptiles of Southern India

We aimed to focus on the ixodid ticks parasitizing wild mammals and reptiles from Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Ghat, southern India. The taxonomic identification of ticks collected from wild mammals and reptiles was performed based on the morphology of adults. We revealed eight species of ticks including, Amblyomma integrum, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus, Haemaphysalis (Kaiseriana) spinigera, H. (K.) shimoga, H. (K.) bispinosa, H. (Rhipistoma) indica, Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides and R. sanguineus s.l. collected from nine species of wild mammals while four tick species Ablyomma kraneveldi, A. pattoni, A. gervaisi and A. javanense parasitizing on four species of reptiles. The highest host richness was shown by H. (K.) bispinosa and R. haemaphysaloides parasitizing six and five different host species, respectively. Reports of R. (B.) annulatus on sambar deer, A. javanense and A. kraneveldi on python as well as A. pattoni on Indian rat snake are the new host records from this region. Eight species of ticks parasitizing on nine species of wild mammals and four species of parasitizing on four species of reptiles were identified. The highest host richness was shown by H. (K.) bispinosa and R. haemaphysaloides. H. spinigera as the vector of KFD was also identified in this study.

Complete genome sequencing of Kaisodi virus isolated from ticks in India belonging to Phlebovirus genus, family Phenuiviridae

An unknown virus was repeatedly isolated from hard tick (Haemaphysalis spinigera) during a proactive arbovirus survey in ticks conducted in 1957, in India. The virus remained uncharacterized for a long time. The passages of this virus in different vertebrate and invertebrate cells along with human and monkey-derived cell culture showed no cytopathic effect. It was identified later to be a member of Kaisodi group among Phlebovirus genus in the family Phenuiviridae (Order: Bunyavirales) by serological methods. Due to its genomic diversity, sequencing of this virus was a challenge for a while. In this study, we were able to sequence the complete genome of this virus isolate using next-generation sequencing (NGS) platform. The unknown virus was identified to be Kaisodi virus (KASDV) using NGS analysis. De novo genome assembly derived three genomic segments for the KASDV which encode for RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, glycoprotein precursor, and nucleoprotein. Functional as well as conserved domains for Kaisodi serogroup viruses were predicted and compared to a known representative of the genus Phlebovirus. The phylogenetic tree revealed its closeness to Silverwater virus, of Kaisodi serogroup with nucleotide (69%, 62%, and 61%) and amino acid (52%, 51%, and 62%) identity for L, M, and S segment, respectively. The study demonstrates the presence of a conserved motif (72TRGNK76) around the RNA binding motif region in tick-borne phleboviruses. The intergenic region encompassing the S segment of Kaisodi serogroup was GC-rich whereas the other Phlebovirus had AT-rich genome. KASDV has the largest intergenic region and larger loops, suggesting stem-loops formed due to larger loops as a possible factor for instability and cause of transcription termination. This paper also describes the real-time RT-PCR and RT-PCR assays developed and used for the detection of KASDV RNA in ticks from Karnataka, Kerala and Maharashtra State, India. The KASDV positivity observed in the recently collected tick pools indicates that the KASDV, isolated from Karnataka state in 1957, is also circulating in the adjoining Kerala state. On the basis of the current study, it should be possible to develop diagnostic assays which would facilitate an in-depth field survey exploring the veterinary and medical significance of KASDV.

Rickettsiae reservoirs among small mammals (Rats, Mice And Shrews) and their Arthropod Vectors in Sri Lanka

Rickettsioses are a group of emerging diseases caused by closely related bacteria. In Sri Lanka, to date, studies have been focused mainly on human subjects. The present study aimed to identify small mammal reservoir hosts and vectors of Rickettsia spp. and Orientia tsutsugamushi in two districts of Sri Lanka. Quantitative-PCR was carried out to detect Rickettsia using citrate synthase gene and Orientia using 47-kD outer membrane protein antigen gene in blood of small rodents and their infested ectoparasites. In both districts ~7.5% blood samples were positive for Rickettsia . Rattus rattus, Bandicota indica and Mus fernandoni were carriers. Three individuals of Suncus murinus, B. indica and Golunda ellioti had only infected ectoparasites. Copies of gltA/100 μL ranged from 133-1.2 × 10 4 in blood and 197-1.9 × 10 7 in ectoparasites. Of small mammals with ectoparasites, 43% had Rickettsia positive ectoparasites. Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides, Ixodes ceylonensis, Haemaphysalis spinigera, Haemaphysalis spp., Stivalius aporus and Xenopsylla cheopis were positive. All study sites except three had infected small mammals or ectoparasites. All samples were negative for O. tsutsugamushi . This is the first study to report Rickettsia spp. in small mammals and their ectoparasites in Sri Lanka. Haemaphysalis spinigera , I. ceylonensis and S. aporus are new records of vectors for Rickettsia . This is also the first report of endemic M. fernandoni as a carrier of Rickettsia and G. ellioti with Rickettsia infected ectoparasites. Though rickettsiosis is not life threatening in most cases, it can lead to severe or fatal disease in vertebrate animals and humans. Hence, the knowledge of the distribution of said pathogen in the reservoirs is essential to control the disease.

Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Control of a Tick-Borne Disease- Kyasanur Forest Disease: Current Status and Future Directions.

In South Asia, Haemaphysalis spinigera tick transmits Kyasanur Forest Disease Virus (KFDV), a flavivirus that causes severe hemorrhagic fever with neurological manifestations such as mental disturbances, severe headache, tremors, and vision deficits in infected human beings with a fatality rate of 3–10%. The disease was first reported in March 1957 from Kyasanur forest of Karnataka (India) from sick and dying monkeys. Since then, between 400 and 500 humans cases per year have been recorded; monkeys and small mammals are common hosts of this virus. KFDV can cause epizootics with high fatality in primates and is a level-4 virus according to the international biosafety rules. The density of tick vectors in a given year correlates with the incidence of human disease. The virus is a positive strand RNA virus and its genome was discovered to code for one polyprotein that is cleaved post-translationally into 3 structural proteins (Capsid protein, Envelope Glycoprotein M and Envelope Glycoprotein E) and 7 non-structural proteins (NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, and NS5). KFDV has a high degree of sequence homology with most members of the TBEV serocomplex. Alkhurma virus is a KFDV variant sharing a sequence similarity of 97%. KFDV is classified as a NIAID Category C priority pathogen due to its extreme pathogenicity and lack of US FDA approved vaccines and therapeutics; also, the infectious dose is currently unknown for KFD. In India, formalin-inactivated KFDV vaccine produced in chick embryo fibroblast is being used. Nevertheless, further efforts are required to enhance its long-term efficacy. KFDV remains an understudied virus and there remains a lack of insight into its pathogenesis; moreover, specific treatment to the disease is not available to date. Environmental and climatic factors involved in disseminating Kyasanur Forest Disease are required to be fully explored. There should be a mapping of endemic areas and cross-border veterinary surveillance needs to be developed in high-risk regions. The involvement of both animal and health sector is pivotal for circumscribing the spread of this disease to new areas.

Prevalence and spatial distribution of Ixodid tick populations in the forest fringes of Western Ghats reported with human cases of Kyasanur forest disease and monkey deaths in South India.

Kyasanur forest disease (KFD) is a major tick-borne viral haemorrhagic fever caused by KFD virus (KFDV) (Flaviviridae). The disease was reported to beconfined to five districts of Karnataka state India until 2011. During 2012-2016, emergence of KFD has been reported in newer areas of Karnataka and adjoining states. Therefore, survey of tick vectors was carried out in these new areas of Karnataka and adjoining states reported with monkey deaths and human cases of KFD. In all selected sites, ticks from the forest floor were collected by lint clothes using flagging method. Tick samples were tested for KFDV nucleic acid by real-time RT-PCR. A total of 4772 ticks, comprising eight species of genus Haemaphysalis and one species each of genus Amblyomma, Ixodes and Rhipicephalus was collected. Haemaphysalis spinigera, the principal vector of KFDV was the predominant tick species (59.5%) collected followed by H. turturis (8.6%). The abundance of H. spinigera ranged from 9.2 to 33.9 per man-hour in the six districts surveyed. Of 214 (4418 tick samples) pools screened by real-time RT-PCR, two pools of H. spinigera were positive for KFDV. High abundance of Haemaphysalis vectors in the six districts indicated that the districts are receptive for KFD outbreaks. KFDV was detected in the tick vectors in the new foci of the KFD. Data on tick distribution will be useful in creating KFD risk map for strengthening the ongoing preventive measures such as vaccination and supply of insect repellents to the high risk groups and intensive health education.

New records of small mammal hosts for five ectoparasite species from Sri Lanka

Ticks and fleas act as vectors for a number of zoonotic diseases, hence are medically important. Handful of studies carried out in Sri Lanka to date have reported 6 tick species and 11 flea species from murine rodents and shrews. Here, we report ticks and fleas infesting murine rodents and shrews collected from 18 selected sites in two districts in Sri Lanka, Kurunegala and Kandy. Two species of ticks ( Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides and Haemaphysalis spinigera ), an unidentified Haemaphysalis larva and a flea Xenopsylla cheopis were found from Kurunegala. From Kandy, four species of ticks ( R. haemaphysaloides, H. spinigera, Ixodis ceylonensis and Dermacentor auratus ) and three species of fleas ( X. cheopis, Stivalius phoberus and Stivalius aporus ) were collected. Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides was recorded from Rattus rattus, Bandicota indica, Mus fernandoni, Golunda ellioti and Suncus murinus ; H . spinigera from R. rattus, B. indica and S. murinus ; I. ceylonensis from M. cervicolor and R. rattus ; D. auratus from R. rattus ; both X. cheopis and S. phoberus were collected only from R. rattus ; S. aporus from R. rattus and M. fernandoni. Though, all species of parasites reported here have been previously recorded from Sri Lanka, D. auratus and H. spinigera are reported for the first time from murine rodents and shrews. We also report here several new host records for the country: R. haemaphysaloides from B. indica , G. ellioti and S. murinus ; H. spinigera from B. indica and S. murinus ; D. auratus and S. aporus from R. rattus ; larvae of I. ceylonensis from M. cervicolor .

An outbreak of Kyasanur forest disease in the Wayanad and Malappuram districts of Kerala, India

Kyasanur forest disease (KFD) is a zoonotic viral haemorrhagic fever and has been endemic to Karnataka State, India. Outbreaks of KFD were reported in new areas of Wayanad and Malappuram districts of Kerala, India during 2014–2015. Investigation of the outbreaks was carried out in these districts during May 2015. The line-list data of KFD cases available with District Medical Office, Wayanad were analysed. Case investigation was carried out to determine the risk factors associated with the outbreak and possible site of contraction infections. Ticks from the forest floor were collected in areas associated with monkey deaths by flagging method to estimate species abundance. Of 102 confirmed cases of KFD reported in Wayanad, 91% were adults aged >15years. About 43% of the cases were from the areas of Poothady Primary Health Centre (PHC) followed by Chethalayam PHC (22%). Most of the affected individuals belong to Kattunayakan tribe, dependent on forest for their livelihood. Those tribes are engaged in trench digging and fire line works in summer months and hence are at a higher risk. In Malappuram, the Cholanaickan tribe, are under high risk of exposure to infected ticks as they live deep in the forest and trap monkeys for game meat. High abundance of Haemaphysalis spinigera and H. turturis, the established vectors of KFD virus was recorded in all affected areas. Incidence of KFD cases/monkey deaths and high abundance of Haemaphysalis vectors in the forest ranges of Wayanad and Malappuram districts indicate that the area has become receptive for KFD outbreaks. Preventive measures (vaccination of high risk groups) coupled with intensive health education should be carried out prior to transmission season.

Expediency of dengue illness classification: the Sri Lankan perspective Highly infectious tick-borne viral diseases: Kyasanur forest disease and Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever in India.

Ticks are distributed worldwide and can harbourand transmit a range of pathogenic microorganisms that affect livestock and humans. Most tick-borne diseases are caused by tick-borne viruses. Two major tick-borne virus zoonotic diseases, Kyasanur forest disease (KFD) and Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF), are notifiable in India and are associated with highmortality rates. KFD virus was first identified in 1957 in Karnataka state; the tick Haemaphysalis spinigera is the main vector. During 2012-2013, cases were reported from previouslyunaffected areas in Karnataka, and newer areas of Kerala and Tamil Nadu states. These reports may be the result of improved active surveillance or may reflect altered virus transmission because of environmental change. CCHF is distributed in Asia, Africa and some part of Europe; Hyalomma spp. ticks are the main vectors. The existence of CCHF in India was first confirmed in 2011 in Gujaratstate. In 2013, a non-nosocomial CCHF outbreak in Amreli district, as well as positive tick, animal and human samples in various areas of Gujarat state, suggested that the virus is widespread in Gujarat state, India. The emergence of KFDand CCHF in various Indian states emphasizes the need for nationwide surveillance among animals and humans. There is a need for improved diagnostic facilities, more containment laboratories, better public awareness, and implementation ofthorough tick control in affected areas during epidemics.

Ixodid Ticks Infesting Rodents and Sheep in Diverse Biotopes of Southern India

A total of 127 rodents were trapped in southern India. Examination of these rodents revealed the presence of 2 species of ticks, Haemaphysalis spinigera and Rhipicephalus ramachandrai. The former species is the principal vector of Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD) in India, and the latter's role, if any, is unknown. Sheep grazing in 1 of the study area were infested with another ixodid tick. Haemaphysalis intermedia, which is a vector of Bhanja virus in India. The presence of H. spinigera on domestic rats is important from the standpoint of KFD enzootiology. This tick shows a narrow habitat preference but a wide host range. In peridomestic situations, the field rodent Bandicota bengalensis did not harbor any tick species. Contiguity of feral and domestic biotopes in some areas contributed to the transfer of R. ramachandrai from its preferred wild rodent host, Tatera indica, to domestic rats Rattus sp.