Gynoid Body Fat Research Articles

APOE4 and Chronic Health Risk Factors are Associated with Sex-Specific Preclinical Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Biomarkers.

Two thirds of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients are female. Genetic and chronic health risk factors for AD affect females more negatively compared to males. This exploratory multimodal neuroimaging study aimed to examine sex differences in cognitively unimpaired older adults on: (1) amyloid-β via 18F-AV-45 Florbetapir PET imaging, (2) neurodegeneration via T1 weighted MRI volumetrics, (3) cerebral blood flow via ASL-MRI. We identified AD risk factors including genetic (APOE genotype status) and health markers (fasting glucose, mean arterial pressure, waist-to-hip ratio, and android and gynoid body fat) associated with neuroimaging outcomes for which we observed sex differences. Participants were sedentary, amyloid-β positive older adults (N = 112, ages 65-87 years) without evidence of cognitive impairment (CDR = 0). Multivariate analysis of covariance models adjusted for intracranial volume, age, and years of education demonstrated lower volume (F (7, 102) = 2.67, p = 0.014) and higher blood flow F (6, 102) = 4.25, p =<0.001) among females compared to males in regions of interest connected to AD pathology and the estrogen receptor network. We did not observe sex differences in amyloid-β levels. Higher than optimal waist to hip ratio was most strongly associated with lower volume, while higher android fat percentage and APOE ε4 carrier status were most strongly associated with higher blood flow among female participants. Findings suggest genetic and chronic health risk factors are associated with sex-specific AD neuroimaging biomarkers. Underlying sex-specific biological pathways may explain these findings. Our results highlight the importance of considering sex differences in neuroimaging studies and when developing effective interventions for AD prevention and risk reduction.

Exercise-Induced Alternations of Adiponectin, Interleukin-8 and Indicators of Carbohydrate Metabolism in Males with Metabolic Syndrome.

Adiponectin (ADIPO) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) are proteins that play a significant, albeit opposing, role in metabolic syndrome (MetS). The reported data on the effect of physical activity on the levels of these hormones in the population of people with MetS are conflicting. The aim of the study was to evaluate the changes in hormone concentrations, insulin-resistance indices and body composition after two types of training. The study included 62 men with MetS (age 36.6 ± 6.9 years, body fat [BF] = 37.53 ± 4.5%), randomly assigned to: an experimental group EG1 (n = 21) with aerobic exercise intervention, an experimental group EG2 (n = 21) with combined aerobic and resistance exercise intervention, both for 12 weeks, and a control group CG (n = 20) without interventions. Anthropometric measurements and body composition (fat-free mass [FFM], gynoid body fat [GYNOID]), as well as a biochemical blood analysis (adiponectin [ADIPO], interleukin-8 [IL-8], homeostatic model assessment-adiponectin (HOMA-AD) and homeostatic model assessment-triglycerides (HOMA-TG) were performed at baseline, and at 6 and 12 weeks of intervention and 4 weeks after the intervention (follow-up). Intergroup (between groups) and intragroup (within each group) changes were statistically evaluated. In the experimental groups EG1 and EG2, no significant changes were observed in the ADIPO concentration, but a decrease of GYNOID and insulin-resistance indices was confirmed. The aerobic training led to favorable changes in IL-8 concentration. The use of combined resistance and aerobic training led to improved body composition, decreased waist circumference and better insulin-resistance indices in men with MetS.

The Effect Of Adipose Tissue Distribution On Aerobic Capacity In Male Overweight Subjects

It has been demonstrated that the predominantly abdominal fat distribution compared withperipheral fat mass decrease the lipids oxidation rates during exercise in normal weight and obese woman. PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of a low vs high ratio of android to gynoid body fat mass on: 1) cardiorespiratory functional capacity (CFC) and 2) ventilatory thresholds in overweight male subjects (OMS). METHODS: Forty two recreationallyactive men (between 2 - 6 h/week of physical activiy) with a mean age of 34.0 + 6.3 wereallocated in two groups: lower android to gynoid L(A/G) ratio (n=19; A/G ratio= 0.85+ 0.14);and the other group with higher H(A/G) ratio (n=23; A/G ratio=1.16+ 0.13). The maximal cardiorespiratory exercise test (Cortex, Metalyzer IIIB, Lipizieg, Germany) was performed on a treadmill using a ramp protocol with workoload (1 km/h) increment every 1 minute in order to determine maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max), ventilatory anaerobic threshold (VAT), and respiratory compensation point (RCP). A dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) was used (GEMedical Systems Lunar, Madison, USA) to measure body composition: total mass, fat mass and skeletal muscle index. Android and gynoid fat were measured, and the ratio between them was calculated (A/G ratio). RESULTS: Regarding body composition the L-A/G showed lower values than H- A/G group for android to gynoid ratio (0.85 + 0.14 vs. 1.16 + 0.13, respectively, p=0.01).In addition, the L-A/G group showed lower values to fat mass index (6.6 + 2.8 vs. 8.5 + 2.4 Kg/m2respectively, p=0.04). No differences (p>0.05) were observed between L-A/G than H-A/G to skeletal muscle index (20.2 + 2.5 vs.18.9 + 1.3 Kg/m2, respectively) and body mass index (27.6+ 2.3 vs. 28.6 + 1.4 Kg/m2 respectively, p=0.13). Regarding CFC, the L-A/G showed greater values to VO2 max (44.4 + 5.4 vs. 37.9 + 5.8 ml/kg/min, respectively, p=0.001). In addition, the L-A/G presented greater values to VO2 at VAT (27.7 + 5.3 vs. 23.5 + 6.1 ml/kg/min, p=0.03) and RCP (40.0 + 7.7 vs. 33.5 + 6.5 ml/kg/min, p=0.01) compared to H-A/G. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that body fat distribution with predominantly android fat mass reduces aerobic capacity in OMS. Furthermore, these results suggest that OMS with lower A/G ratio show greater skeletal muscle oxidative capacity during exercise.

Relationships Between Body Composition, Abdominal Muscle Strength, And Well Defined Abdominal Muscles

BACKGROUND Physically fit individuals may desire to have well defined abdominal muscles (also known as “6 Pack Abs”). They seek to obtain 6 Pack Abs through numerous exercises that strengthen and tone the abdominal muscles. It has also been purported that to have 6 Pack Abs an individual must have low amounts of total body fat. However, there has been little to no research to determine the amount of body fatness or abdominal muscle strength necessary to have 6 Pack Abs. PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between total and regional body fatness, abdominal muscle strength, and the aesthetic quality of an individual's abs. METHODS: 56 male and 31 female subjects between the ages of 19 and 35 years old were recruited for measurement of body composition via dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, abdominal skinfold measurement, abdominal muscle strength assessment through a 60 second sit up test, and a photograph of the subject’s bare abdomens. The photographs were then scored on a 10 point scale for overall quality of 6 Pack Abs based on visual appearance for symmetry, muscle mass, and definition (total possible score of 30 points). Regression analysis was used to determine what factors predict 6 Pack Ab score. RESULTS: The strongest predictor of 6 pack ab score for women was having a low percent of android body fat (r2 = 0.52), followed by total percent body fat (r2 = 0.46), abdominal skinfold thickness (r2 = 0.45), and percent of gynoid body fat (r2 = 0.33). The strongest predictor of 6 pack ab score for males was having a low percent of android body fat (r2 = 0.43), followed by total percent body fat (r2 = 0.38) and then abdominal skinfold thickness (r2 = 0.33). 1 minute sit up performance did not significantly predict 6 pack ab score. CONCLUSION: The present data suggest that the strongest predictor of 6 pack ab score is having a low percent of android body fat followed by total percent body fat. Since total body fatness can be influenced by diet and exercise, but body fat distribution is determined by genetics, 6 pack abs may be an unattainable goal for some individuals. Furthermore, the present data indicate that performance on the 1 minute sit up test is not a significant predictor of 6 pack ab score, suggesting that abdominal muscle strength is not a significant influence on 6 pack abs in physically active individuals.

The dietary inflammatory index is associated with anti- and pro-inflammatory adipokines in Brazilian schoolchildren.

To investigate the relationship of Children's Dietary Inflammatory Index (C-DII™) scores with body fat distribution and serum adipokines in Brazilian schoolchildren. This population-based cross-sectional study enrolled 378 schoolchildren aged 8 and 9years from Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Food consumption was assessed using three 24-h dietary recalls from which C-DII scores were calculated. Serum adipokines [adiponectin, leptin, retinal-binding protein 4 (RBP4), and chemerin] were analyzed in blood samples. Sociodemographic characteristics and sedentary behavior were assessed using a semi-structured questionnaire. Total, truncal, android and gynoid body fat were evaluated by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). We compared the distributions of adiposity measures and serum adipokines by C-DII categories with linear regression, adjusting for potential confounders. The mean sample C-DII was 0.59 ± 0.94 and ranged from -2.16 to +2.75. The C-DII was not associated with central and total body fat. However, the C-DII was modestly inversely associated with adiponectin and RBP4, and modestly directly associated with chemerin. These results remained significant after adjusting for body fat. Every 1 SD of C-DII was related, respectively, to a -0.8 (-1.5, - 0.03) and to a -0.1 (-0.2, - 0.05) units lower mean of adiponectin and RBP4, and to 7.2 (0.3, 14.1) units higher of chemerin. Higher C-DII score was modestly inversely and directly associated with anti- and pro-inflammatory adipokines, respectively, in Brazilian children. The development of public health policies is needed to promote healthy eating habits during childhood to prevent the earlyonset of systemic inflammation and ill health effects later in life.

Android and gynoid fat percentages and serum lipid levels in United States adults.

Accumulating evidence suggests that fat distribution is a better predictor of cardiovascular disease than body mass index (BMI). The aim of this study was to investigate the association of android and gynoid fat percentages with lipid profiles to determine whether android and/or gynoid fat percentages are associated with serum lipid levels. A population-based cross-sectional study. Five thousand six hundred and ninety-six adults (20 years and older) who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2006. The regional body composition in the android and gynoid regions was defined by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The estimation of lipid risk profiles included total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) -cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) -cholesterol and triglycerides (TG). Regardless of gender, android and gynoid body fat percentages were positively and significantly correlated with BMI and waist circumference. After adjustment for age, ethnicity, education, smoking, alcohol consumption, dyslipidaemia and BMI, increases in android fat percentage were significantly associated with total cholesterol, TG and HDL cholesterol in males, and total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and LDL cholesterol in females. The gynoid fat percentages showed a positive correlation with total cholesterol in males, whereas gynoid fat accumulation in females showed a favourable association with TG and HDL cholesterol. The observed associations differed according to ethnic groups. Our results suggest that regional fat distribution in the android and gynoid regions have different effects on lipid profiles, and that fat in the android region, rather than the gynoid region, may be an important factor in determining the risk of cardiovascular disease.

Benefits and relationship of steps walked per day to cardiometabolic risk factor in Brazilian middle-aged men

We evaluated the benefits and relationship of the number of steps per day to the cardiometabolic risk factors: adiposity indicators; insulin resistance; and metabolic syndrome (MetS) in apparently healthy Brazilian middle-aged men. Cross-sectional. Apparently healthy men (age: 50 ± 5 years; n=299) were studied. The number of steps per day was measured by pedometer. The adiposity indicators (waist circumference, total body fat, android and gynoid body fat), serum insulin, glucose and triglycerides, triglycerides/high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c) ratio, homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and MetS were assessed. Subjects were placed in groups to reflect different levels of steps per day (average of 7 consecutive days): Group 1<10,000 and Group 2 ≥ 10,000. Relationships among variables were measured by multiple linear regressions and the Spearman correlation coefficient as appropriate (p<0.05). The cardiometabolic risk factors were lower (p<0.05) in Group 2 than in Group 1. The number of steps per day was a negative predictive factor for total body fat, android and gynoid body fat and HOMA-IR independent of age, working position, android fat, overweight/obesity prevalence, and triglycerides/HDL-c ratio. Moreover, there was a negative correlation between the number of steps and total body fat, android and gynoid body fat, HOMA-IR and MetS. Brazilian middle-aged men performing more than 10,000 steps per day have better cardiometabolic conditions than those walking fewer than 10,000 steps. The number of steps per day is inversely related to the indicators of total and regional adiposity, insulin resistance and MetS.

Estrogen receptor protein content is different in abdominal than gluteal subcutaneous adipose tissue of overweight-to-obese premenopausal women

ObjectivePremenopausal women demonstrate a distinctive gynoid body fat distribution and circulating estrogen status is associated with the maintenance of this adiposity patterning. Estrogen's role in modulation of regional adiposity may occur through estrogen receptors (ERs), which are present in human adipose tissue. The purpose of this study was to determine regional differences in the protein content of ERα, ERβ, and the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) between the abdominal (AB) and gluteal (GL) subcutaneous adipose tissue of overweight-to-obese premenopausal women. Materials/MethodsBiopsies of the subcutaneous AB and GL adipose tissue were performed in 15 premenopausal women (7 Caucasian/8 African American, 25.1±1.8years, BMI 29.5±0.5kg/m2). Adipose tissue protein content was measured by western blot analysis and correlation analyses were conducted to assess the relationship between ER protein content and anthropometric indices/body composition measurements. ResultsWe found that ERα protein was higher in AB than GL (AB 1.0±0.2 vs GL 0.67±0.1 arbitrary units [AU], P=0.02), ERβ protein was higher in GL than AB (AB 0.78±0.12 vs GL 1.3±0.2AU, P=0.002), ERα/ERβ ratio was higher in AB than GL (AB 1.9±0.4 vs GL 0.58±0.08AU, P=0.007), and GPER protein content was similar in AB and GL (P=0.80) subcutaneous adipose tissue. Waist-to-hip ratio was inversely related to gluteal ERβ (r2=0.315, P=0.03) and positively related to gluteal ERα/ERβ ratio (r2=0.406, P=0.01). ConclusionsThese results indicate that depot specific ER content may be an important underlying determinant of regional effects of estrogen in upper and lower body adipose tissue of overweight-to-obese premenopausal women.

Relationship of body mass index and body fat distribution with postural balance and risk of falls in Spanish postmenopausal women

Menopause status has been associated with weight gain and increased central adiposity. Obesity and postural instability are related to an increased risk of falls. The purpose of our study was to analyze the association of body weight and body fat distribution with postural balance and their correlation with falls in postmenopausal women. A cross-sectional, observational study was conducted on 100 postmenopausal women aged 50 to 65 years with at least 12 months of amenorrhea. The participants were divided into obese, overweight, and normal-weight groups according to their body mass index (BMI) and into android, uniform, and gynoid body fat distribution types according to waist-to-hip ratio. Postural stability was assessed with force platforms. χ and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used for statistical analysis. A total of 18 participants reported falls in the previous 12 months. The obese group had significantly higher values for the root-mean-square amplitude of the center of pressure in the posteroanterior direction under both eyes-open and eyes-closed conditions (P = 0.005 and P = 0.007, respectively), as well as for the velocity of center-of-pressure displacements (P = 0.032). In the android group, most stabilometric parameters under the condition "eyes open and standing on a foam surface" were significantly higher, whereas greater values were observed in the uniform-type group with eyes closed. A BMI of 25 kg/m or higher (odds ratio, 3.58; 95% CI, 1.07-11.9; P = 0.038) and android body fat distribution (odds ratio, 5.35; 95% CI, 1.75-16.39; P = 0.003) were correlated with the risk of falling. Postural instability is associated with obesity and uniform and android body fat distribution types (waist-to-hip ratio > 0.76) in Spanish postmenopausal women aged 50 to 65 years. Our results also suggest that a BMI of 25 kg/m or higher and android body fat distribution can be considered as independent risk factors for falls.

Endurance and resistance training lowers C-reactive protein in young, healthy females

The purpose of this study was to determine whether endurance (E) or endurance + resistance (ER) training affects C-reactive protein (CRP) and if these changes are related to alterations in fitness and (or) body composition in young females. Thirty-eight females (aged 18-24 years) were assigned to 1 of 3 groups: (1) E, (2) ER or (3) active control (AC). The E and ER groups completed 15 weeks of marathon training. The ER group performed additional resistance training and the AC group maintained their usual exercise routine. Primary outcomes were measured pre- and post-training and included anthropometric indices, dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, plasma CRP, time to complete 1.5 miles (in minutes), and upper and lower body strength tests (i.e., 8 repetition max on bench and leg press (ER group only)). There were no differences in any variable among the groups at baseline. After training, the E group decreased time to complete 1.5 miles (p < 0.05). The AC group decreased percent and absolute body fat while the E group decreased percent body fat, absolute body fat, and android and gynoid body fat (p < 0.05). The ER group significantly improved strength (p < 0.001) and reduced plasma CRP from 2.0 ± 1.1 to 0.8 ± 0.3 mg·L(-1) (p = 0.03). No significant associations were observed between CRP and measures of body composition or aerobic capacity. Combined endurance and resistance training may be an effective modality for reducing plasma CRP in young adult females independent of changes in aerobic capacity or body composition.

Shape and Significance of Feminine Beauty: An Evolutionary Perspective

Evolutionary and feminist perspectives on female beauty are compatible in some respects, such as the oppressive and destructive outcomes for women as a consequence of the importance attached to female beauty. The perspectives tend to differ on the issue of the origins of (some) beauty standards. Evolutionary scientists have proposed that beauty is a reliable cue for women’s health and fertility. However, as the factors regulating health and reproductive capabilities cannot be directly observed, sexual selection has fashioned psychological adaptations to attend to bodily features that are correlated with health and fertility. It is proposed that people resonate to such bodily features and find them attractive. One such bodily feature in women is gynoid body distribution (i.e., female-normative body shape in which fat distribution is concentrated around hips and thighs). Gynoid body fat distribution is measured by the ratio of waist and hips circumferences (WHR). In this paper we summarize empirical evidence showing that WHR is an independent predictor for risks for major diseases, optimal hormonal profile, and reproductive capabilities. Next, we present findings from studies that demonstrate systematic variations in the size of WHR produce systematic changes in judgment of female attractiveness within diverse societies throughout the world. Such widespread appeal of low WHR suggests that people have evolved mental mechanisms to judge body features indicative of good health as attractive, meaning that some standards of beauty are not arbitrary or constructed. We conclude that a better understanding and appreciation of the beauty-health linkage can be empowering to women.

Cross-cultural consensus for waist–hip ratio and women's attractiveness

In women of reproductive age, a gynoid body fat distribution as measured by the size of waist–hip ratio (WHR) is a reliable indicator of their sex hormone profile, greater success in pregnancy and less risk for major diseases. According to evolutionary mate selection theory, such indicators of health and fertility should be judged as attractive. Previous research has confirmed this prediction. In this current research, we use the same stimulus for diverse racial groups (Bakossiland, Cameroon, Africa; Komodo Island, Indonesia; Samoa; and New Zealand) to examine the universality of relationships between WHR and attractiveness. As WHR is positively correlated with body mass index (BMI), we controlled BMI by using photographs of women who have gone through micrograft surgery for cosmetic reasons. Results show that in each culture participants selected women with low WHR as attractive, regardless of increases or decreases in BMI. This cross-cultural consensus suggests that the link between WHR and female attractiveness is due to adaptation shaped by the selection process.