Guanylyl Cyclase Isoforms Research Articles

Hippocampal AMPA- and NMDA-induced cGMP signals are mainly generated by NO-GC2 and are under tight control by PDEs 1 and 2.

In the central nervous system, the nitric oxide (NO)/cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) signalling cascade has an established role in fine-tuning of synaptic transmission. In the present study, we asked which isoform of NO-sensitive guanylyl cyclase, NO-GC1 or NO-GC2, is responsible for generation of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA)- and AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid)-induced cGMP signals and which of the phosphodiesterases (PDEs) is responsible for degradation. To this end, we performed live cell fluorescence measurements of primary hippocampal neurons isolated from NO-GC isoform-deficient mice. Although both isoforms contributed to the NMDA- and AMPA-induced cGMP signals, NO-GC2 clearly played the predominant role. Whereas under PDE-inhibiting conditions the cGMP levels elicited by both glutamatergic ligands were comparable, NMDA-induced cGMP signals were clearly higher than the AMPA-induced ones in the absence of PDE inhibitors. Thus, AMPA-induced cGMP signals are more tightly controlled by PDE-mediated degradation than NMDA-induced signals. In addition, these findings are compatible with the existence of at least two different pools of cGMP in both of which PDE1 and PDE2-known to be highly expressed in the hippocampus-are mainly responsible for cGMP degradation. The finding that distinct pools of cGMP are equipped with different amounts of PDEs highlights the importance of PDEs for the shape of NO-induced cGMP signals in the central nervous system.

Nitric Oxide/Cyclic Guanosine Monophosphate Signaling via Guanylyl Cyclase Isoform 1 Mediates Early Changes in Synaptic Transmission and Brain Edema Formation after Traumatic Brain Injury.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) often induces structural damage, disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), neurodegeneration, and dysfunctions of surviving neuronal networks. Nitric oxide (NO) signaling has been suggested to affect brain functions after TBI. The NO exhibits most of its biological effects by activation of the primary targets-guanylyl cyclases (NO-GCs), which exists in two isoforms (NO-GC1 and NO-GC2), and the subsequently produced cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). However, the specific function of the NO-NO-GCs-cGMP pathway in the context of brain injury is not fully understood. To investigate the specific role of the isoform NO-GC1 early after brain injuries, we performed an in vivo unilateral controlled cortical impact (CCI) in the somatosensory cortex of knockout mice lacking NO-GC1 and their wild-type (WT) littermates. Morphological and electrophysiological changes of cortical neurons located 500 μm distant from the lesion border were studied early (24 h) after TBI. The CCI-operated WT mice exhibited significant BBB disruption, an impairment of dendritic spine morphology, a reduced pre-synaptic glutamate release, and less neuronal activity in the ipsilateral cortical network. The impaired ipsilateral neuronal excitability was associated with increased A-type K+ currents (IA) in the WT mice early after TBI. Interestingly, NO-GC1 KO mice revealed relatively less BBB rupture and a weaker brain edema formation early after TBI. Further, lack of NO-GC1 also prevented the impaired synaptic transmission and network function that were observed in TBI-treated WT mice. These data suggest that NO-GC1 signaling mediates early brain damage and the strength of ipsilateral cortical network in the early phase after TBI.

Angiotensin II-Induced Cardiovascular Fibrosis Is Attenuated by NO-Sensitive Guanylyl Cyclase1.

In the NO/cGMP signaling cascade, relevant in the cardiovascular system, two NO-sensitive guanylyl cyclase (NO-GC) isoforms are responsible for NO-dependent cGMP generation. Here, the impact of the major NO-GC isoform, NO-GC1, on fibrosis development in the cardiovascular system was studied in NO-GC1-deficient mice treated with AngiotensinII (AngII), known to induce vascular and cardiac remodeling. Morphometric analysis of NO-GC1 KO’s aortae demonstrated an enhanced increase of perivascular area after AngII treatment accompanied by a higher aortic collagen1 mRNA content. Increased perivascular fibrosis also occurred in cardiac vessels of AngII-treated NO-GC1 KO mice. In line, AngII-induced interstitial fibrosis was 32% more pronounced in NO-GC1 KO than in WT myocardia associated with a higher cardiac Col1 and other fibrotic marker protein content. In sum, increased perivascular and cardiac interstitial fibrosis together with the enhanced collagen1 mRNA content in AngII-treated NO-GC1-deficient mice represent an exciting manifestation of antifibrotic properties of cGMP formed by NO-GC1, a finding with great pharmaco-therapeutic implications.

Distinct functions of soluble guanylyl cyclase isoforms NO-GC1 and NO-GC2 in inflammatory and neuropathic pain processing.

A large body of evidence indicates that nitric oxide (NO)/cGMP signaling essentially contributes to the processing of chronic pain. In general, NO-induced cGMP formation is catalyzed by 2 isoforms of guanylyl cyclase, NO-sensitive guanylyl cyclase 1 (NO-GC1) and 2 (NO-GC2). However, the specific functions of the 2 isoforms in pain processing remain elusive. Here, we investigated the distribution of NO-GC1 and NO-GC2 in the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia, and we characterized the behavior of mice lacking either isoform in animal models of pain. Using immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization, we demonstrate that both isoforms are localized to interneurons in the spinal dorsal horn with NO-GC1 being enriched in inhibitory interneurons. In dorsal root ganglia, the distribution of NO-GC1 and NO-GC2 is restricted to non-neuronal cells with NO-GC2 being the major isoform in satellite glial cells. Mice lacking NO-GC1 demonstrated reduced hypersensitivity in models of neuropathic pain, whereas their behavior in models of inflammatory pain was normal. By contrast, mice lacking NO-GC2 exhibited increased hypersensitivity in models of inflammatory pain, but their neuropathic pain behavior was unaltered. Cre-mediated deletion of NO-GC1 or NO-GC2 in spinal dorsal horn neurons recapitulated the behavioral phenotypes observed in the global knockout. Together, these results indicate that cGMP produced by NO-GC1 or NO-GC2 in spinal dorsal horn neurons exert distinct, and partly opposing, functions in chronic pain processing.

BAY 60–2770 activates two isoforms of nitric oxide sensitive guanylyl cyclase: Evidence for stable insertion of activator drugs

Nitric oxide sensitive guanylyl cyclase (NOsGC), a hemoprotein and the major physiological receptor for nitric oxide (NO), is a heterodimer with the α1/β1 and α2/β1 isoforms known to be important for NO-signaling and conversion of GTP to cGMP in humans. Two innovative classes of compounds modulating the NO/cGMP signaling pathway have been discovered: the heme-dependent sGC stimulators, that stimulate NOsGC directly and also increase the affinity towards NO, and the heme-independent sGC activators, that are thought to bind to oxidized and heme-free NOsGC in tissues exposed to oxidative stress. In the current study, we evaluate the effects of the sGC activators BAY 58–2667 (cinaciguat) and BAY 60–2770 on the isoforms α1/β1 and α2/β1 expressed in Sf9 cells. Western blot analysis of cytosolic fractions revealed a decrease in overexpressed NOsGC in the presence of sGC activators, which is dependent on an intact catalytic site of the enzyme. For both isoforms, we show a higher efficacy for BAY 60–2770 compared to cinaciguat after purification of NOsGC by affinity and size exclusion chromatography. Using a new experimental strategy of expression of NOsGC with activator and subsequent purification, we demonstrate a stable insertion of activator drugs into the enzyme during protein biosynthesis independent of the heme redox state. We postulate that the balance between stable insertion of activator during de novo synthesis and replacement of NOsGC ferric heme in tissues exposed to oxidative stress can be influenced by the dosage regimen.

Nitric oxide/cGMP signaling via guanylyl cyclase isoform 1 modulates glutamate and GABA release in somatosensory cortex of mice

In hippocampus, two guanylyl cyclases (NO-GC1 and NO-GC2) are involved in the transduction of the effects of nitric oxide (NO) on synaptic transmission. However, the respective roles of the NO-GC isoforms on synaptic transmission are less clear in other regions of the brain. In the present study, we used knock-out mice deficient for the NO-GC1 isoform (NO-GC1 KO) to analyze its role in the glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission at pyramidal neurons in layers II/III of somatosensory cortex. NO-GC1 KO slices revealed reduced frequencies of miniature excitatory- and inhibitory-postsynaptic currents, increased paired-pulse ratios and decreased input–output curves of evoked signals, which indicated the reduction of glutamate and GABA release in NO-GC1 KO mice. The functional changes in NO-GC1 KO mice were caused by the lack of cGMP as they were rescued to WT-like levels by the cGMP analog, 8-Br-PET-cGMP and conversely, mimicked by the NO-GC inhibitor, ODQ, in WT slices. In search of a cGMP target, two blockers of hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels (ZD7288 and DK-AH269) reduced glutamate release in WT to the level of NO-GC1 KO mice suggesting HCN channels as possible effectors for presynaptic cGMP enhancing the glutamate release probability. By blocking postsynaptic NMDA receptors, the NMDA receptor-dependent NO signal was shown to be linked to the effect of NO-GC1 on presynaptic GABA release. Of note, the balance between glutamatergic and GABAergic inputs at individual synapses remained unaltered in the NO-GC1 KO mice. In sum, our results indicate a role for cGMP generated by presynaptic localized NO-GC1 to adjust inhibitory and excitatory inputs at individual synapses in the somatosensory cortex.

Guanylyl cyclase can't stand the HETE

nitric oxide (NO)-sensitive isoforms of heterodimeric guanylyl cyclase [α1β1- and α2β1-soluble guanylyl cyclases (sGC)], extend an umbrella of protection throughout the cardiovascular system, with wide-ranging effects on local blood flow, platelet and leukocyte reactivity, vessel morphology, and

Differential role of NO-sensitive guanylyl cyclase isoforms NO-GC1 and NO-GC2 in auditory function in adult mice

Background In the inner ear, elevated cyclic guanosine 3’-5’-monophospate (cGMP) levels were shown to have a sheltering role for cochlear hair cells and hearing function [1]. However, the individual roles of the two nitric oxide-sensitive guanylyl cyclase isoforms (NO-GC1 and NO-GC2) as cGMP generators in this protective effect are still unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate how the deletion of either one of the a-subunits of NO-GC (NO-GC1 KO or NO-GC2 KO) [2] or deletion of the b1-subunit of NO-GC (NO-GC KO), leading to global lack of NO-GC expression [3], affects hearing function, vulnerability to noise exposure and recovery from acoustic trauma in mice.

Nitric oxide stimulates glutamatergic synaptic inputs to baroreceptor neurons through potentiation of Cav2.2-mediated Ca2+ currents

Nitric oxide (NO) increases glutamate release to the second-order neurons in the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS). N-type Ca2+ channel is essential for triggering glutamate release at synaptic terminals. In this study, we determined the role of Cav2.2 subunit in NO-induced increase in glutamate synaptic inputs to NTS neurons. The second-order NTS neurons and nodose ganglionic (NG) neurons were identified by applying DiA, a fluorescent lipophilic tracer, on aortic depressor nerve in rats. NO donor DEA/NO significantly increased tractus solitarius (TS)-evoked excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) in second-order NTS neurons, an effect was abolished by pretreatment of slice with ODQ, an inhibitor for soluble isoform of guanylyl cyclase. DEA/NO decreased the paired-pulse ratio of TS-evoked EPSCs, while increased the frequency, but not the amplitude, of miniature EPSCs in second-order NTS neurons. Furthermore, DEA/NO significantly increased Ba2+ currents in identified baroreceptor NG neurons. However, DEA/NO had little effect on the Ba2+ currents in the presence of specific N-type Ca2+ blocker ω-conotoxin GVIA. In addition, immunocytochemistry staining revealed that Cav2.2 subunit immunoreactivates were colocalized with DiA-labeled baroreceptor nerve terminals in the NTS. Collectively, these findings suggest that NO stimulates glutamatergic synaptic inputs to second-order NTS neurons through augmentation of Cav2.2-mediated N-type Ca2+ currents.

Discovery of nitric oxide and cyclic GMP in cell signaling and their role in drug development

The role of nitric oxide in cellular signaling in the past three decades has become one of the most rapidly growing areas in biology. Nitric oxide is a gas and a free radical with an unshared electron that can regulate an ever-growing list of biological processes. Nitric oxide is formed from L-arginine by a family of enzymes called nitric oxide synthases. These enzymes have a complex requirement for a number of cofactors and regulators including NADPH, tetrahydrobioterin, flavins, calmodulin and heme. The enzymes are present in most cells and tissues. In many instances, nitric oxide mediates its biological effects by activating the soluble isoform of guanylyl cyclase and increasing cyclic GMP synthesis from GTP. Cyclic GMP, in turn, can activate cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) and can cause smooth muscles and blood vessels to relax, decrease platelet aggregation, alter neuron function, etc. These effects can decrease blood pressure, increase blood flow to tissues, alter memory and behavior, decrease blood clotting, etc. The list of effects of nitric oxide that are independent of cyclic GMP formation is also growing at a rapid rate. For example, nitric oxide can interact with transition metals such as iron, thiol groups, other free radicals, oxygen, superoxide anion, unsaturated fatty acids, and other molecules. Some of these reactions result in the oxidation of nitric oxide to nitrite and nitrate to terminate the effect, while other reactions can lead to altered protein structure function and/or catalytic capacity. These effects probably regulate bacterial infections, inflammation of tissues, tumor growth, and other disorders. These diverse effects of nitric oxide that are cyclic GMP dependent or independent can alter and regulate numerous important physiological events in cell regulation and function. Nitric oxide can function as an intracellular messenger, an antacoid, a paracrine substance, a neurotransmitter, or as a hormone that can be carried to distant sites for effects. Thus, it is a unique molecule with an array of signaling functions. However, with any messenger molecule, there can be too little or too much of the substance, resulting in pathological events. Some of the methods to regulate either nitric oxide formation metabolism, or function have been in clinical use for more than a century, as with the use of organic nitrates and nitroglycerin in angina pectoris that was initiated in the 1870s. Inhalation of low concentrations of nitric oxide can be beneficial in premature infants with pulmonary hypertension and increase survival rates. Ongoing clinical trials with nitric oxide synthase inhibitors and nitric oxide scavengers are examining the effects of these agents in septic shock, hypotension with dialysis, inflammatory disorders, cancer therapy, etc. Recognition of additional molecular targets in the areas of nitric oxide and cyclic GMP research will continue to promote drug discovery and development programs in the field. Current and future research will undoubtedly expand the clinician’s therapeutic armamentarium to manage a number of important diseases by perturbing nitric oxide formation and metabolism. Such promise and expectations have obviously fueled the interests in nitric oxide research for a growing list of potential therapeutic applications. There have been and will continue to be many opportunities from nitric oxide and cyclic GMP march to develop novel and important therapeutic agents. There are presently more than 80,000 publications in the area of nitric oxide research. The lecture will discuss our discovery of the first biological effects of nitric oxide and how the field has evolved since our original reports in 1977. The possible utility of this signaling pathway to facilitate novel drug development and the creation of numerous projects in the Pharmaceutical and biotechnology industrials will also be discussed.

Notch Initiates the Endothelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition in the Atrioventricular Canal through Autocrine Activation of Soluble Guanylyl Cyclase

The heart is the most common site of congenital defects, and valvuloseptal defects are the most common of the cardiac anomalies seen in the newborn. The process of endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) in the cardiac cushions is a required step during early valve development, and Notch signaling is required for this process. Here we show that Notch activation induces the transcription of both subunits of the soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) heterodimer, GUCY1A3 and GUCY1B3, which form the nitric oxide receptor. In parallel, Notch also promotes nitric oxide (NO) production by inducing Activin A, thereby activating a PI3-kinase/Akt pathway to phosphorylate eNOS. We thus show that the activation of sGC by NO through a Notch-dependent autocrine loop is necessary to drive early EndMT in the developing atrioventricular canal (AVC).

Hydrogen peroxide regulates splicing by modulating the protein levels of select splice factors

In our previous studies we demonstrated the existence of an alternatively spliced soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) isoform C‐α1 resistant to oxidative stress‐induced protein degradation. We extended these studies to address if sGC RNA splicing can be regulated by H2O2 exposure in human breast carcinoma MDA468 cells which constitutively express sGC. RT‐PCR demonstrated that treatment with 1 mM H2O2 for 24h induced the C‐α1 sGC transcript level. To identify potential sGC splicing regulators we performed an in silico analysis using ASD search engine from EMBL. Binding sites for SRp20, hnRNP 2AB1, HuR and PTB1 splice regulators were identified proximal to the regulated and canonical splice acceptors within intron 2. Thus, we investigated if the exposure to H2O2 affects the abundance of these predicted splice regulators. Using Western blotting we observed a significant decrease in levels of PTB1 and hnRNP A2/B1, but not HuR or SRp20 proteins. Next we demonstrated that the expression of PTB1 is affected on the protein, not mRNA level. We also found that oxidative stress‐induced degradation of PTB1 is not mediated by Caspase‐3. These data suggest that H2O2, a ubiquitous molecule associated with oxidative stress, modulates the expression of a select subset of splicing factors, which might play an important role in cellular stress response and adaptation.Research is supported by the Welch and JS Dunn Foundations to F.M.

Nitric oxide and cyclic nucleotide signal transduction modulates synaptic vesicle turnover in human model neurons

The human Ntera2 (NT2) teratocarcinoma cell line can be induced to differentiate into post-mitotic neurons. Here, we report that the human NT2 neurons generated by a spherical aggregate cell culture method express increasing levels of typical pre-synaptic proteins (synapsin and synaptotagmin I) along the neurite depending on the length of in vitro culture. By employing an antibody directed against the luminal domain of synaptotagmin I and the fluorescent dye N-(3-triethylammoniumpropyl)-4-(4-(dibutylamino)styryl)pyridinium dibromide, we show that depolarized NT2 neurons display calcium-dependent exo-endocytotic synaptic vesicle recycling. NT2 neurons express the neuronal isoform of neuronal nitric oxide synthase and soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC), the major receptor for nitric oxide (NO). We tested whether NO signal transduction modulates synaptic vesicle turnover in human NT2 neurons. NO donors and cylic guanosine-monophosphate analogs enhanced synaptic vesicle recycling while a sGC inhibitor blocked the effect of NO donors. Two NO donors, sodium nitroprusside, and and N-Ethyl-2-(1-ethyl-2-hydroxy-2-nitrosohydrazino) ethanamine evoked vesicle exocytosis which was partially blocked by the sGC inhibitor. The activator of adenylyl cyclase, forskolin, and a cAMP analog induced synaptic vesicle recycling and exocytosis via a parallel acting protein kinase A pathway. Our data from NT2 neurons suggest that NO/cyclic nucleotide signaling pathways may facilitate neurotransmitter release in human brain cells.

Immortalization of human melanocytes does not alter the de novo properties of nitric oxide to induce cell detachment from extracellular matrix components via cGMP

Nitric oxide (NO) is an important mediator in many (patho)physiological processes including inflammation and skin cancer. A key transducer in NO signaling is the soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) that catalyzes the formation of guanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cGMP). The basic mechanism of NO-cGMP signaling in melanocytic cells is, however, not well elucidated. A setback for such studies is the limited availability of patient-derived melanocytes. Here, we report that immortalized human normal and vitiliginous cell lines generated via cell transfection with human papilloma virus 16 genes E6 and E7 express NO synthase and guanylyl cyclase isoforms and the multidrug resistance-associated proteins 4 and 5 as selective cGMP exporters. Donors of NO (e.g., the NONOate (Z)-1-[N-(3-ammoniopropyl)-N-(n-propyl)amino]diazen-1-ium-1,2-diolate (PAPA-NO) and reactive nitrogen oxygen species (RNOS) like 3-morpholino-sydnonimine (SIN-1) as a donor of peroxynitrite as well as YC-1 as a NO-independent sGC stimulator increased intracellular cGMP levels in immortalized melanocytes (up to eightfold over controls), indicating the expression of functional sGC in these cells. PAPA-NO and SIN-1 also reduced the attachment of immortalized melanocytes to extracellular matrix (ECM) components like fibronectin which was dependent on cellular melanin content and cGMP. Such effects on melanoma cells were positively related to metastatic potential and were cGMP independent. Intriguingly, nonpigmented metastatic melanoma cells were more sensitive to exogenous sources of RNOS than of NO. Thus, immortalized melanocytes can be used as a tool for further research on differences in cell signaling between the different melanocytic lineages in particular towards impairment of cell-ECM adhesion by NO or RNOS, which may be important in metastasis and vitiligo pathogenesis.

Disruption of a Plasmodium falciparum cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase gene causes aberrant gametogenesis.

Phosphodiesterase (PDE) and guanylyl cyclase (GC) enzymes are key components of the cGMP signalling pathway and are encoded in the genome of Plasmodium falciparum. Here we investigate the role of specific GC and PDE isoforms in gamete formation – a process that is essential for malaria transmission and occurs in the Anopheles mosquito midgut following feeding on an infected individual. Details of the intracellular signalling events controlling development of the male and female gametes from their precursors (gametocytes) remain sparse in P. falciparum. Previous work involving the addition of pharmacological agents to gametocytes implicated cGMP in exflagellation – the emergence of highly motile, flagellated male gametes from the host red blood cell. In this study we show that decreased GC activity in parasites having undergone disruption of the PfGCβ gene had no significant effect on gametogenesis. By contrast, decreased cGMP-PDE activity during gametocyte development owing to disruption of the PfPDEδ gene, led to a severely reduced ability to undergo gametogenesis. This suggests that the concentration of cGMP must be maintained below a threshold in the developing gametocyte to allow subsequent differentiation to proceed normally. The data indicate that PfPDEδ plays a crucial role in regulating cGMP levels during sexual development.

Functional roles of isoforms of NO-sensitive guanylyl cyclase

Two isoforms of NO-sensitive GC have been identified to date that share regulatory properties but differ in the subcellular localization; the more ubiquitously expressed α1β1 heterodimer (α1-GC) and the α2β1 isoform (α2-GC) mainly expressed in brain. Knock-out mice in which either one the α subunits is deleted reveal a loss of the respective GC isoform. The α1-GC and α2-GC KO mice do not show up-regulation of the remaining non-deleted isoform and therefore provide information about the functional roles of the isoforms.

The α2β1 isoform of guanylyl cyclase mediates plasma membrane localized nitric oxide signalling

Nitric oxide (NO) is a mediator of copious biological processes, in many cases through the production of cGMP from the enzyme nitric oxide-sensitive guanylyl cyclase. Natriuretic peptides also elevate cGMP, often with distinct biological effects, raising the issue of how specificity is achieved. Here we show that a recently described α2β1 isoform of guanylyl cyclase is expressed in a number of epithelia, where it is localized to the apical plasma membrane. We measured the functional properties of the α2β1 isoform by utilizing the NO-dependent activation of the ion channel cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), which occurs by phosphorylation via the membrane-bound type II isoform of cGMP-dependent protein kinase. We found that cGMP generated by NO activation of the α2β1 isoform of guanylyl cyclase is an exceptionally efficient mediator of nitric oxide action on membrane targets, activating CFTR far more effectively than the cytoplasmically located α1β1 guanylyl cyclase isoform. Targeting the α1β1 isoform of guanylyl cyclase to the membrane also dramatically enhanced the effects of nitric oxide on CFTR within the membrane. This was not due to increased enzymatic activity of guanylyl cyclase in a membrane location, but to production of a localised membrane pool of cGMP by membrane-localized NO-dependent guanylyl cyclase that was resistant to degradation by phosphodiesterases. Selective effects of cGMP produced from this enzyme in response to NO are directed at membrane targets and suggest that drugs selectively activating or inhibiting this α2β1 isoform of guanylyl cyclase may have unique pharmacological properties.

Natriuretic Peptide Responsive, Cyclic Guanosine Monophosphate Producing Structures in the Guinea Pig Bladder

We examined the localization of natriuretic peptide responsive, cyclic guanosine monophosphate producing cells in the guinea pig bladder. The bladder was removed from male guinea pigs sacrificed by cervical dislocation. The lateral wall of the bladder was cut into strips 2 mm thick. The tissue pieces were incubated in the presence of human atrial natriuretic peptide, rat brain natriuretic peptide and C-type natriuretic peptide or the nitric oxide donor DEANO (diethylamine NONOate or 1,1-diethyl-2-hydroxy-2-nitrosohydrazine) (Sigma). Cyclic guanosine monophosphate immunoreactivity was localized using an antibody against formaldehyde fixed cyclic guanosine monophosphate. Atrial natriuretic peptide and brain natriuretic peptide stimulated cyclic guanosine monophosphate synthesis in suburothelial interstitial cells, whereas C-type natriuretic peptide was not effective. In contrast, DEANO stimulated cyclic guanosine monophosphate synthesis in urothelial umbrella cells, suburothelial interstitial cells, muscle interstitial cells and neurons. The effect of atrial natriuretic peptide and brain natriuretic peptide was not inhibited by ODQ (1H-[1, 2, 4]oxadiazolo[4-3a]quinoxalin-1-one), an inhibitor of nitric oxide responsive soluble guanylyl cyclase. To our knowledge our findings show for the first time a localized effect of atrial natriuretic peptide and brain natriuretic peptide to the suburothelial cells of the guinea pig bladder. These cells express the soluble guanylyl cyclase and particulate guanylyl cyclase-A isoforms. The specific physiological role of these cells is not known but it was suggested that they may be involved in the generation or modulation of sensation. The results imply a role for natriuretic peptide-cyclic guanosine monophosphate signaling in the processing of sensory information in the bladder.

Long-Term Potentiation in the Visual Cortex Requires Both Nitric Oxide Receptor Guanylyl Cyclases

The role of nitric oxide (NO)/cGMP signaling in long-term potentiation (LTP) has been a lingering matter of debate. Within the cascade, the NO receptor guanylyl cyclase (GC), the cGMP-forming enzyme that is stimulated by NO, plays a key role. Two isoforms of GC (alpha2-GC, alpha1-GC) exist. To evaluate their contribution to synaptic plasticity, we analyzed knock-out mice lacking either one of the GC isoforms. We found that LTP induced in the visual cortex is NO dependent in the wild-type mice, absent in either of the GC isoform-deficient mice, and restored with application of a cGMP analog in both strains. The requirement of both NO receptor GCs for LTP indicates the existence of two distinct NO/cGMP-mediated pathways, which have to work in concert for expression of LTP.

Gene inactivation of the β1 subunit of NO-sensitive guanylyl cyclase in mice

NO-sensitive guanylyl cyclases are the most important receptors for the signalling molecule NO. Activation of guanylyl cyclase by NO leads to the formation of the intracellular messenger cGMP. The enzyme is a heterodimer which consists of two subunits, α and β. Three different subunits exist in vivo: Two α subunits (α1 and α2) and one β subunit (β1). Functional enzymes are formed by heterodimerization. The two known guanylyl cyclase isoforms are composed of one of either α subunit and the β1 subunit (i.e. α1β1 and α2β1).